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The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts

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According to the Bible, ancient Israel's neighbors worshipped a wide variety of gods. In recent years, scholars have sought a better understanding of this early polytheistic milieu and its relation to Yahweh, the God of Israel. Drawing on ancient Ugaritic texts and looking closely at Ugaritic deities, Mark Smith examines the meaning of "divinity" in the ancient near East and considers how this concept applies to Yahweh.

352 pages, Paperback

First published July 13, 2001

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About the author

Mark S. Smith

49 books60 followers

Mark S. Smith is Skirball Professor of Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies at New York University. He has served as visiting professor at the University of Pennsylvania, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome. Smith was elected vice president of the Catholic Biblical Association in 2009.

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Displaying 1 - 8 of 8 reviews
Profile Image for فؤاد.
1,131 reviews2,376 followers
January 4, 2026
یهوه در ابتدا خدای تمام جهان نبود، بلکه تنها خدای حامی قوم اسرائیل بود. به باور کتاب مقدس هر قوم خدای حامی خود را داشت که باید از او اطاعت می‌کرد تا حمایتش را جلب کند. یهوه تنها یکی از این خدایان متعدد بود. کتاب مقدس وجود خدایان دیگر را انکار نمی‌کند، تنها دستور اکید می‌دهد که قوم اسرائیل باید به یهوه وفادار باشد و خدایان اقوام دیگر را نپرستد. به این دیدگاه «یک‌پرستی» می‌گویند. بخش‌هایی از کتاب مقدس که پیش از تبعید بابل نوشته شده‌اند، این دیدگاه را منعکس می‌کنند.

آن گاه که خدای برین اقوام را میراث بخشید، آنگاه که بنی‌آدم را منتشر ساخت، او مرز قوم‌ها را تعیین فرمود، به تعداد پسران خدا. پس نصیب یهوه [یکی از پسران خدا] قوم او شد، و اسرائیل میراث تعیین شده از بهر او. (تثنیه ۳۲: ۸-۹)

وقتی امپراتوری بابل به رهبری بخت‌نصر اورشلیم را فتح و معبد یهوه را نابود کرد، برخی اسرائیلیان پذیرفتند که یهوه خدایشان در برابر خدای بابل شکست خورده و نتوانسته از ایشان و معبد خود محافظت کند.

اما برخی از یهودیان به دیدگاه دیگری گرایش پیدا کردند و جایگاه یهوه را از خدایی قومی به خدایی کیهانی ارتقا دادند. خدایی واحد که کارش خلق جهان است و دیگر لازم نبود اثر ملموس حمایتش در سیاست دیده شود.

بدین ترتیب شکست و ناکامی سیاسی، به یکتاباوری کیهانی منجر شد. اگر یهوه در این جنگ از ما حمایتی نکرد، دلیل بر ناتوانی او به عنوان خدا نیست؛ چرا که خدایی او برتر از آن است که با یک جنگ زیر سؤال برود. او خدای تمام کیهان است. بخش‌هایی از کتاب مقدس که پس از تبعید بابل نوشته شده‌اند، این دیدگاه جدید را منعکس می‌کنند.
206 reviews13 followers
June 9, 2011
This was a fascinating and rich exploration of Ugaritic myth compared to Israelite conceptions of the divine. Smith explores the literature found at Ras Shamra, describing in detail the divine family of El and Athirat, Baal's relationship to them (as well as other gods and their divine enemies, helpfully classified into levels). He then makes a case for understanding the Ugaritic myths as reflecting the importance of the family unit in the culture and the self understanding particularly of the royal family. He then makes a case for the development of monotheism in Israel based on the disintegration of royal power and loss of land. The difficulty with the category is also discussed in terms of Yahweh's uniqueness vis a vis the rich myths surrounding other gods and relative sparsity of myth for Yahweh.

Some parts of his argument seem a little stretched, such as his argument that the Baal cycle shouldn't be understood in the category of a dying and rising god since the texts available to us do not explicitly talk about ritual around Baal's return to life. Rather he argues they are more about royal funeral rites.

Overall a thought provoking book. This is not an introductory text.
Profile Image for Eric.
6 reviews1 follower
October 29, 2008
The information in here is excellent in its quality, and extensive in its grasp. However, it is at times also inaccessible. The main points are usually easy to comprehend, but some of the supporting arguments get bogged down in technicalities, too many references to others work without a summery of their arguments, and for those unfamiliar with the language and lore of the western Middle East, it may be difficult. This work attempts to stand on its own, however it is best as a solid complement for other works on this topic.
Profile Image for Joel Camaya.
4 reviews1 follower
June 27, 2013
Smith discusses lengthily West Semitic religion, providing it with the backdrop of the Ugaritic texts that present a whole panorama of its polytheistic system, and dwells on the Israelite polytheism in its incipient stages. He also asks questions about the ancient circumstances of biblical monotheism: “Why did biblical monotheism make sense at the time of its emergence with the context of Israelite polytheism and against the larger backdrop of West Semitic polytheism from which Israelite polytheism emerged…?”14 Smith deals with the subject intensively (a detailed discussion of the deities of Ugarit—structures, relations, and nature), inserting biblical references throughout. Then he proceeds to put forward the seeds of monotheism that were found in the cult of El. These seeds developed through time into the biblical monotheism that found its developed form in Isaiah 40-55.
Profile Image for Kirk Lowery.
213 reviews37 followers
July 24, 2011
Smith is marvelous when he sticks to his specialty: Ugaritic studies. He is completely unconvincing in his comparison to the Hebrew Bible -- and he knows it.
Profile Image for Jena.
316 reviews2 followers
December 4, 2015
Luego de leer "La historia de los Judíos" de Paul Johnson, Goodreads me recomendó este libro "Los orígenes del Monoteísmo Bíblico" para complementar el anterior.
El libro de Mark S. Smith, es lento, farragoso por sus tecnicismos de hebreo y otros idiomas y repetitivo en su redacción. Da la idea que el autor quiere entender lo que ha dicho, así que requiere una lectura cuidadosa y paciente para enterarse de las teorías sobre un monoteísmo surgido del politeísmo propio de Cananea. En esta región, Abraham celebró su alianza personal con su dios y la donación de tierra. ¿Pero de cuál dios se trataba?
El autor hace una comparación de la Biblia con los textos de Ugarit, hoy la población costera mediterránea de Ras Shamra, en Siria, que coincide con el antiguo Israel en tiempo y lugar.
La propia Biblia dice que Yavé era un dios desconocido para los patriarcas Abraham, Isaac, y Jacob, y los presenta como adoradores del dios cananeo "El". Las fuentes más extensas de la Edad del Bronce sobre este dios, provienen de Ugarit. "El" aparece como el patriarca divino por excelencia, su paternidad se aplica a todo el pantheon divino que incluye a Athirat su esposa, y sus setenta hijos.
El culto del dios "El", subsistió aún en la Edad del Hierro. Se cree que con el transcurso del tiempo, Yavé, que era un dios de segundo nivel y quizás extranjero, se fue incorporando a la vieja figura de "El". Esto se puede confirmar en el Exodo 6:2-3, que identifica a el viejo dios "El Shadday" con Yavé:
"Y Dios le dijo a Moisés: "Yo soy Yavé. Me aparecí a Abraham, a Isaac y a Jacob como Al Shadday, pero nunca me conocieron por mi verdadero nombre Yavé".
Como el dios "El" de los textos de Ugarit, así es descrito Yavé, un dios viejo y patriarcal, esto puede verse en el libro de los Salmos, en Job, en Isaías, Abakuk, etc.
Por lo que hace al monoteísmo, fue meramente retórico desde la salida de Abraham de la ciudad-estado Ur, hasta la época del Exilio forzado de Israel por la invasión Asiria. Luego, viene la derrota de Judá ante Babilonia,que fue más benévola que la anterior.
Todos los judíos que quedaron en Cananea se asimilaron a otros pueblos vecinos y, nuevamente, cayeron en el politeísmo. Otras tribus huyeron a Egipto o a distintas regiones de Medio Oriente y desde entonces vivirían fuera de la tierra prometida.
Durante el exilio babilonio fue que, al verse dispersos, sin jefes o estado, sin ninguna otra estructura de apoyo para un gobierno, se impuso la práctica regular de su religión para conservar su identidad y afianzar el verdadero monoteísmo que los caracteriza.
Profile Image for Jonathon Bernard.
Author 1 book5 followers
April 8, 2022
Informative and effective overall, but too dry, cautious, and even repetitive at times to be engaging.
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