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Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History
This comprehensive history of the northern frontier of China through the first millennium B.C. details the formation of two increasingly distinct cultural areas: the sedentary Chinese and the northern nomads. Nicola Di Cosmo explores the tensions existing between these two worlds as they became progressively more polarized, with the eventual creation of the nomadic Hsiung-nu empire in the north, and of the Chinese empire in the south. Di Cosmo investigates the origins of the antagonism between early China and its "barbarian" neighbors.
380 pages, Paperback
First published March 20, 1998
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Displaying 1 - 7 of 7 reviews
September 28, 2012
In this monograph, Di Cosmo successfully incorporates archaeological sources into the historical studies of ancient China, a methodology that takes the historical studies out of the tradition of mere textual analysis by thoroughly examining available material sources to establish plausible contexts in which a set of historical texts can be meaningful read and vice versa. The outcome of this innovative combination of material history with traditional historical endeavor is the deconstruction of our concept of a stable Northern frontier in early China and a Chinese-centric concept of a clear boundary between the moral Chinese in the center and the nomadic barbarians in the periphery. Another innovative feature of the book is its organization. Instead of giving a master narrative of one frontier, by organizing his writings into four different but interconnected themes, Di Cosmo tries to alert us that there were multiple frontiers whose formations and evolutions were sufficiently complex processes that merit independent study. Each theme tries to understand the ‘frontier’ from a different perspective, e.g., the material culture of the frontier, the political frontier, the frontier of treaties and tributes, and the frontier of the Grand Historian—a knowledge frontier.
Chapter 1 and 2 are purely historical studies of material cultures of Eurasian Steppe and the frontier of northern China. By close scrutiny of various archaeological excavations, Di Cosmo reveals to us picture of great diversity, unevenness, and complexity in the cultures emerged in these regions from 5th-4th millennium B.C. till mid-4th -3rd century B.C. Northern communities typically practice mixed economies of agriculture and pastoralism since the late Bronze Age and were shown to engage in frequent contacts with Shang and Zhou ‘Chinese’. In fact, the diversities among the northern barbarians themselves were probably more pronounced then the difference between the Chinese and the barbarians at that time. Neither was it possible to find a stable frontier until the formation of the Xiongnu empire in 209 B.C. More importantly, the rise of nomadism was by no means a linear development and the concept of a pure nomadic culture before the Warring States era was not a useful one in describing northern peoples. However, based on the abundance of weapons, ritual usages of horses, and animal style handicrafts found in burial grounds dated from 7th or 6th B.C., one can detect a rise of the military aristocracies in tribal unions. Archaeological findings in 5th – 4th century B.C. like gold and silver precious objects discloses the increasing commercial roles of this class of aristocracy and the increased trading with Zhou people.
Chapter 3 and 4 are combinatory studies of textual and material evidence to grasp the Chinese perceptions of the northern frontiers. Here, we find the pronounced dichotomous rhetoric of a community bound by high moral values of and one without such moral concerns, a rhetoric in response to a new kind of relations with the northern peoples characterized by frequent warfare and shifting diplomatic strategies during Shang and Western Zhou era (p.125). Starting from the Eastern Zhou period, we find more regular and formalized political relations that aimed at incorporating non-Zhou people. This process of expansion and cultural assimilation, while successfully absorbed farmers, shepherds, and mountaineers in the northern borders, also brought northern Chinese states like Qi, Jin, and Qin in direct contact with the nomads. Such contact with the steppe warriors spurred the northern Chinese states to employ a new form of military strategy—wall-building. Contrary to earlier scholar consensus of wall-building as a defensive strategy, Di Cosmo, based on a close examination of textual accounts and the structures/functions of the walls, argues that it was actually a strategy of penetration and occupation in newly conquered territories (pp.155-8).
In Chapter 5 and 6, Di Cosmo gives us a new interpretation for the formation of the Xiongnu empire and Han China’s turn from diplomacy of heqin to full-scale military campaign in dealing with Xiongnu. Unlike early ‘dependency theory’ that explains the rise of the Xiongnu empire as driven by increasing internal need for agricultural products, Di Cosmo looks into the interactions of external factors like the invasions of Qin into Ordos regions with internal political processes like militarization and centralization and concludes that 1) the formation of Xiongnu was a result of the internal crisis brought by Qin’s expansion into the Ordos and 2) due to the military weakness, Han Gaozu was forced into a tributary relationship which provided external revenues to the further development of the Xiongnu empire.
The last theme is a historiographical study of Sima Qian’s shiji. In Chapter 7 and 8, Di Cosmo engages with the questions such as why and how did Sima Qian write a monograph on Xiongnu. On one hand, Sima Qian’s historical writing has a very strong empiricist tendency and he employs a plethora of sources like personal acquaintance, oral accounts, written documents reports, and informants like Xiongnu people in Chinese society to compile a detailed description of Xiongnu’s economy (e.g. animal husbandry), culture (e.g. burial rituals), and society (e.g. political and military institutions). On the other hand, Sima Qian’s writing is also deeply ideological and reflects his need to place “the northern nomads within the realm of prescriptive history where the shape and nature of change is sourced to the intricate web of correlations at the foundations of yin-yang and five phase thought, is evidence of a fuller appreciation of the role of Inner Asia as a genuine part of Chinese history” (p. 295). Despite Sima Qian’s relatively objective accounts of Xiongnu (compared with his peers like uncritical readers of Huai-nan-zi and Shan-hai-jing), his knowledge is nonetheless subsumed under his project to create a knowledge frontier of the Other.
While it is very likely that continuing archaeological excavations will disprove many of the details in Di Cosmo’s descriptions of the peoples in Central Asia, what we cannot deny is that, after this book, it is no longer possible to think of early China without paying attention to its fluid northern and western frontiers nor to discuss the histories of the peoples in Central Asia as if there was a simple and linear development. The inconclusiveness of Di Cosmo’s accounts of early China and its neighbors should neither overshadow his contributions in opening up new fields of research nor undermine his innovative research methodology that can be transported into studies of other time periods and places.
Chapter 1 and 2 are purely historical studies of material cultures of Eurasian Steppe and the frontier of northern China. By close scrutiny of various archaeological excavations, Di Cosmo reveals to us picture of great diversity, unevenness, and complexity in the cultures emerged in these regions from 5th-4th millennium B.C. till mid-4th -3rd century B.C. Northern communities typically practice mixed economies of agriculture and pastoralism since the late Bronze Age and were shown to engage in frequent contacts with Shang and Zhou ‘Chinese’. In fact, the diversities among the northern barbarians themselves were probably more pronounced then the difference between the Chinese and the barbarians at that time. Neither was it possible to find a stable frontier until the formation of the Xiongnu empire in 209 B.C. More importantly, the rise of nomadism was by no means a linear development and the concept of a pure nomadic culture before the Warring States era was not a useful one in describing northern peoples. However, based on the abundance of weapons, ritual usages of horses, and animal style handicrafts found in burial grounds dated from 7th or 6th B.C., one can detect a rise of the military aristocracies in tribal unions. Archaeological findings in 5th – 4th century B.C. like gold and silver precious objects discloses the increasing commercial roles of this class of aristocracy and the increased trading with Zhou people.
Chapter 3 and 4 are combinatory studies of textual and material evidence to grasp the Chinese perceptions of the northern frontiers. Here, we find the pronounced dichotomous rhetoric of a community bound by high moral values of and one without such moral concerns, a rhetoric in response to a new kind of relations with the northern peoples characterized by frequent warfare and shifting diplomatic strategies during Shang and Western Zhou era (p.125). Starting from the Eastern Zhou period, we find more regular and formalized political relations that aimed at incorporating non-Zhou people. This process of expansion and cultural assimilation, while successfully absorbed farmers, shepherds, and mountaineers in the northern borders, also brought northern Chinese states like Qi, Jin, and Qin in direct contact with the nomads. Such contact with the steppe warriors spurred the northern Chinese states to employ a new form of military strategy—wall-building. Contrary to earlier scholar consensus of wall-building as a defensive strategy, Di Cosmo, based on a close examination of textual accounts and the structures/functions of the walls, argues that it was actually a strategy of penetration and occupation in newly conquered territories (pp.155-8).
In Chapter 5 and 6, Di Cosmo gives us a new interpretation for the formation of the Xiongnu empire and Han China’s turn from diplomacy of heqin to full-scale military campaign in dealing with Xiongnu. Unlike early ‘dependency theory’ that explains the rise of the Xiongnu empire as driven by increasing internal need for agricultural products, Di Cosmo looks into the interactions of external factors like the invasions of Qin into Ordos regions with internal political processes like militarization and centralization and concludes that 1) the formation of Xiongnu was a result of the internal crisis brought by Qin’s expansion into the Ordos and 2) due to the military weakness, Han Gaozu was forced into a tributary relationship which provided external revenues to the further development of the Xiongnu empire.
The last theme is a historiographical study of Sima Qian’s shiji. In Chapter 7 and 8, Di Cosmo engages with the questions such as why and how did Sima Qian write a monograph on Xiongnu. On one hand, Sima Qian’s historical writing has a very strong empiricist tendency and he employs a plethora of sources like personal acquaintance, oral accounts, written documents reports, and informants like Xiongnu people in Chinese society to compile a detailed description of Xiongnu’s economy (e.g. animal husbandry), culture (e.g. burial rituals), and society (e.g. political and military institutions). On the other hand, Sima Qian’s writing is also deeply ideological and reflects his need to place “the northern nomads within the realm of prescriptive history where the shape and nature of change is sourced to the intricate web of correlations at the foundations of yin-yang and five phase thought, is evidence of a fuller appreciation of the role of Inner Asia as a genuine part of Chinese history” (p. 295). Despite Sima Qian’s relatively objective accounts of Xiongnu (compared with his peers like uncritical readers of Huai-nan-zi and Shan-hai-jing), his knowledge is nonetheless subsumed under his project to create a knowledge frontier of the Other.
While it is very likely that continuing archaeological excavations will disprove many of the details in Di Cosmo’s descriptions of the peoples in Central Asia, what we cannot deny is that, after this book, it is no longer possible to think of early China without paying attention to its fluid northern and western frontiers nor to discuss the histories of the peoples in Central Asia as if there was a simple and linear development. The inconclusiveness of Di Cosmo’s accounts of early China and its neighbors should neither overshadow his contributions in opening up new fields of research nor undermine his innovative research methodology that can be transported into studies of other time periods and places.
July 21, 2011
Cosmo's book is recommended to anybody interested in the subject, but it must be read in context. As the author himself admits frequently, a lot of information on what Cosmo refers to as "Inner Asia" takes the form of theories. These theories, sometimes lacking large amounts of textual and archaeological backing, are not always perfect or fully developed. As more archaeological work is done, many may become obsolete with time.
Nonetheless, this is an interesting and insightful book to read. Cosmo's own theories challenge some of the more conventional ones. The book in this sense is somewhat enlightening, at least provided that the reader recognizes that new findings may further change the way we look at the frontier to the North of China.
Nonetheless, this is an interesting and insightful book to read. Cosmo's own theories challenge some of the more conventional ones. The book in this sense is somewhat enlightening, at least provided that the reader recognizes that new findings may further change the way we look at the frontier to the North of China.
December 21, 2014
An intense and in-depth look at the Xiongnu of ancient China (focusing on the Ch'in and Han Dynasties). A bit long-winded but important reading for those seeking a stronger understanding of the steppe tribe that caused the first Emperor Ch'in Shih Huangdi's reaction to their rise (the building of the Great Wall of China), the Emperor Wudi's desire to find allies (that resulted in his sending of Zhang Qian to Ferghana), and Sima Qian's eloquent coverage of their appearance in Chinese history.
July 2, 2020
Overall a great read. Particularly good was his treatments of Ssu-ma Chi'en, as I never appreciated his importance. With his more scientific approach to historiography and critical view of the empire, pointing out that the "net of laws was drawn tighter and tighter," he is one of the more appealing Chinese intellectuals of the time.
A feather in Di Cosmo's cap is his observation, startling to me anyway, that the many walls of the Chou were actually not initially build for defensive reasons. This is based on textual and archeological evidence which as he presents it makes it seem rather obvious and therefore odd if Di Cosmo were the first scholar to realize this (not sure if he is).
He seems to downplay the cultural and ethnic factors in the Han vs. non-Han split, but I think it was rather unconvincing. At one point he mentions that the non-Han states or semi-states of the frontier peoples simply didn't belong to the Chou club, as he calls it. Despite his suggestion that it was due to political considerations, I see no better reason than that of ethnic differences.
A feather in Di Cosmo's cap is his observation, startling to me anyway, that the many walls of the Chou were actually not initially build for defensive reasons. This is based on textual and archeological evidence which as he presents it makes it seem rather obvious and therefore odd if Di Cosmo were the first scholar to realize this (not sure if he is).
He seems to downplay the cultural and ethnic factors in the Han vs. non-Han split, but I think it was rather unconvincing. At one point he mentions that the non-Han states or semi-states of the frontier peoples simply didn't belong to the Chou club, as he calls it. Despite his suggestion that it was due to political considerations, I see no better reason than that of ethnic differences.
September 15, 2018
This book was both an enjoyable and informative read. The work is focused primarily on the interactions between China and the nomadic steppe peoples from the the Warring States Period through the Qin and Han dynasties. The author does a good job of utilizing primary source evidence both literary and archaeological. If this book interests you I also recommend Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations as a complementary read.
The only thing I did not like about the book (which can hardly be held against the book) is that it uses the Wade-Giles transliteration system rather than the Pinyin system. This meant a lot of conversion work for me when comparing to more recent texts.
The only thing I did not like about the book (which can hardly be held against the book) is that it uses the Wade-Giles transliteration system rather than the Pinyin system. This meant a lot of conversion work for me when comparing to more recent texts.
October 13, 2024
Really good stuff. The bits on the formation of the Xiongnu and its relationship with the unification of China under the Qin. Also very interesting notes on warring states period which interested me as a novice on ancient Chinese history.
October 17, 2023
Informative and riveting! Understanding how the walls in China's northern frontier became tools of imperialist expansion rather than border defence was quite illuminating, to say the least.
Displaying 1 - 7 of 7 reviews