Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848-1865

Macmillan Wars of the United States

by Robert M. Utley

Frontiersmen in Blue is a comprehensive history of the achievements and failures of the United States Regular and Volunteer Armies that confronted the Indian tribes of the West in the two decades between the Mexican War and the close of the Civil War. Between 1848 and 1865 the men in blue fought nearly all of the western tribes. Robert Utley describes many of these skirmishes in consummate detail, including descriptions of garrison life that was sometimes agonizingly isolated, sometimes caught in the lightning moments of desperate battle.

Genres: History, American History, Military History, War, Military Fiction

438 pages, Paperback

First published June 1, 1981

About the author

A specialist in Native American history and the history of the American West, Robert Marshall Utley was a former chief historian of the National Park Service. He earned a Bachelor of Science in history from Purdue University in 1951, and an Master of Arts in history from Indiana University in 1952. Utley served as Regional Historian of the Southwest Region of the NPS in Santa Fe from 1957 to 1964, and as Chief Historian in Washington, D.C. from 1964 until his retirement in 1980.

Reviews

[Jim Drewery · Rating 5 out of 5]

In Frontiersmen in Blue, Robert Utley provides a sweeping and insightful glimpse into the challenges, triumphs, and downfalls of the United States Army, as it struggled to deal with the explosion of westward expansion and the increasing conflict it brought with the Amerindians of the West in the mid 1800's. It looks not only at the “regular” army during this era, but also the many militia and volunteer forces which were formed to meet individual contingencies as well. Maps are provided in each chapter, which greatly aids the reader in keeping up with the narrative as it winds its way across the vastness of the West and adds comprehension of the great distances involved and often stark isolation of the forts. Although this is one of his earliest books, Utley's extensive knowledge of military and western history is readily apparent throughout the narrative as the major battles and many smaller skirmishes fought against the western Indians are described in splendid detail. He synthesizes excerpts from the memoirs and diaries of the men who served at the scattered frontier outposts and on the great expeditions of the era with details combed from official records to arrive at a fairly balanced analysis of the many obstacles the army faced.
Here his insights are especially enlightening, as he details not only the major battles fought in the field against a savvy, highly mobile, and capable foe, but also against other, perhaps less tangent, but equally formidable obstacles as well. Things like unpredictable and often brutally harsh weather extremes, horrid living conditions, and the tedium of garrison life which regularly featured isolation, lousy food, and disease, Poor to non-existent roads created constant logistical backlogs and often created critical shortages of practically everything from provisions to clothing to ammunition and weapons. All were often in short supply as were men and horses and this frequently limited the ability of garrisons to respond in sufficient force to punish hostile Indians or at times even to defend themselves. The chronic shortage of personnel was among the most debilitating factor faced by the frontier army according to Utley. Citing the army's own official records Utley shows that most units were rarely fully manned as provided for by law and regulation. He elaborates further with an astute discussion of the running debate over the benefits and perils of maintaining a large standing army and describes the ongoing battle for funding in the halls of Congress and in the court of public opinion of the era, which along with the harsh life and miserably low pay made recruitment very difficult. Many opted instead to join militia forces which generally offered land bounties, shorter enlistments, and far more relaxed discipline compared to the regular army.
The narrative remains quite objective however, as he bluntly discusses the brutal disciplinary measures, rampant alcoholism, petty jealousies and increasing sectionalism which demoralized the troops and increasingly divided the officer corps as the country slipped towards the Civil War. He opines that many officers and men were ill-equipped for their circumstances by their own arrogance, inexperience, and over-confidence in their military superiority, many times with fatal results. He also argues that the low pay, slow promotions, and harsh conditions wreaked havoc on the army's leadership in the 1850's. Citing as evidence the host of capable officers who resigned during this time, but who would return to lead the great armies of the Civil War and indelibly make their mark on history, like Grant, McClellan, and Sherman.(31) Fair consideration is also given to the Amerindian perspective, with the now standard laudatory remark about the mounted Native American warrior being the “finest light cavalry in the world.”(7) Utley cites the lack of cohesive leadership, conflicts and in-fighting within and among the various tribes themselves, the superiority of the military's weaponry and a lack of understanding by Native Americans of the sheer magnitude of White society and its resolve to prevail, as the major factors contributing to the defeat of the Indian.
While this is a fairly well crafted academic work, a hint of bias towards the army and the United States is prevalent throughout, as one might expect given the author's background. After all Utley is a former army officer, who served at the Pentagon as historian to the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1954-56 and actually wrote this book in his spare time, while working for the National Parks Service as its Chief Historian.
Despite its few shortcomings this is an outstanding reference for academic inquiries regarding the frontier army and its dealings with the Amerindians of the West and is often found on the required reading lists for college courses on the topic. Interestingly enough though this book, as well as its companion volume entitled, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866-1891, might never have reached the printer, but for the fortuitous decision of MacMillan Publishing executive Peter Ritner back in 1967. Utley had originally signed a deal to write the second book in The MacMillan Wars of the United States Series. The contract called for his history of the frontier army to be inclusive of the period from the Mexican-American War through the 1890 Wounded Knee incident. However Utley had “reached his word limit” by the time he got to 1865 and asked the series editor, Louis Morton of Dartmouth College, for permission to write the second book covering the remaining quarter century. Morton nixed the idea, adamant that the flow of the series be maintained. However several other writing projects for the series were behind schedule. Under pressure to keep the publishing schedule on track, Ritner overruled Morton's objections and included both volumes in the series.1 Thus it was merely a happy circumstance, brought about by the demands of the corporate publishing world, which has preserved this illuminating work for future generations. Perusing the author's website however, one comes away with a sense that Utley felt vindicated with Ritner's decision at the time and even more so when both volumes were selected to be republished under the Bison logo of the University of Nebraska Press in 1981 and 1984 respectively. An irony one might suspect was probably not lost, but more likely relished by Utley and certainly this is a worthy bit of praise in itself.
Over the past half century Utley's pen has indeed been prolific, having written more than sixty books, the majority written in conjunction with his duties for the National Parks to which can be added dozens of pamphlets and brochures published by the government as well. He has authored eighteen works written “on his own time” which have been published by academic and commercial interests, most coming after his retirement from government service. He has also edited several books and served on the editorial boards of numerous academic periodicals and journals as well acting as adviser and commentator on several television projects produced for PBS, the Discovery Channel, and A&E Networks. His writing has been honored with nearly every accolade awarded in the field, some three dozen in all. Indeed the Western Historical Association headquartered at the University of Missouri at St. Louis has memorialized his rightful place in American historiography, annually presenting the Robert M. Utley Book Award for the best non-fiction book on the military history of western North America.
Robert M. Utley his is hardly a household name, nor is he likely to be in the future. Which is truly a shame, because he is a national treasure of historical knowledge and literary talent. Now more than thirty years after his “retirement” and in his eighties, Utley remains in good health, aside from acute hearing loss and is still a prolific writer. His latest book, a biography of Geronimo, which he says delves into the early days of the legendary Apache warrior was just released last year. 2012 also marked the fiftieth anniversary of Utley's first literary release, Custer and the Great Controversy: Origin and Development of a Legend, which hit the shelves in the summer of 1962 and that one could surely argue makes the “Old Bison” a bit of a legend himself. Frontiersmen in Blue is concise, balanced, and exceedingly readable, providing an excellent foundational survey of the topic and should be read by all serious scholars of the genre.

[Jim Drewery · Rating 5 out of 5]

In Frontiersmen in Blue, Robert Utley provides a sweeping and insightful glimpse into the challenges, triumphs, and downfalls of the United States Army, as it struggled to deal with the explosion of westward expansion and the increasing conflict it brought with the Amerindians of the West in the mid 1800's. The author looks not only at the “regular” army during this era, but also the many militia and volunteer forces which were formed to meet individual contingencies as well.
Although this is one of his earliest books, Utley's extensive knowledge of military and western history is readily apparent throughout the narrative. As are the roots of his keen literary talent, a skill which would garner him numerous literary honors over the years. While this is a fairly well crafted academic work derived from solid source material, there are a few minor errors contained in the notes and more recent inquiries have contradicted some of the information included. However the author can hardly be faulted for what was unknown at the time and his methodology remains constant throughout the documentation, making these a trifling issues at best. An ever present hint of bias towards the army and the United States is evident throughout the work, as one might expect given the author's background.
After all Utley is a former army officer, who served at the Pentagon as historian to the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1954-56 and actually wrote this book in his spare time, while working for the National Parks Service as its Chief Historian. He spent his collegiate summers working for the National Park Service as an historical aide at what was then called the "Custer Battlefield National Monument” in Montana.1 He earned a BA in History from Purdue in 1951 and his MA from Indiana University the following year before entering the army. After finishing his military service, Utley became a full time employee of the National Parks Service in 1957, where he worked in various positions for the next twenty years. In 1977 Gerald Ford appointed him Deputy Executive Director of the President's Advisory Council on Historic Preservation where he served until his retirement in 1980.
The narrative remains quite objective however, with the author highlighting the brutal disciplinary measures, rampant alcoholism, petty jealousies and increasing sectionalism which demoralized the troops and increasingly divided the officer corps as the country slipped towards the Civil War. He opines that many officers and men were ill-equipped for their circumstances by their own arrogance, inexperience, and over-confidence in their military superiority, many times with fatal results. Fair consideration is also given to the Amerindian perspective, with the now standard laudatory remark about the mounted Native American warrior being the “finest light cavalry in the world.”(7) Utley cites the lack of cohesive leadership, conflicts and in-fighting within and among the various tribes themselves, the superiority of the military's weaponry and a lack of understanding by Native Americans of the sheer magnitude of White society and its resolve to prevail, as the major factors contributing to the defeat of the Indian.
Maps are provided in each chapter, which greatly aids the reader in keeping up with the narrative as it winds its way across the vastness of the West and adds comprehension of the great distances involved and often stark isolation of the forts. Utley describes the major battles and many smaller skirmishes fought against the western Indians in splendid detail. He synthesizes excerpts from the memoirs and diaries of the men who served at the scattered frontier outposts and on the great expeditions of the era with details combed from official records to arrive at a fairly balanced analysis of the many obstacles the army faced. Here his insights are especially enlightening, as he details not only the major battles fought in the field against a savvy, highly mobile, and capable foe, but also against other, perhaps less tangent, but equally formidable obstacles as well. Things like unpredictable and often brutally harsh weather extremes, horrid living conditions, the tedium of garrison life that featured isolation, lousy food, and disease. These were but a few of the hardships endured by the soldiers of the frontier army and the few women and others who ventured along with them. Poor to non-existent roads created constant logistical backlogs and often created critical shortages of practically everything from provisions to clothing to ammunition and weapons. All were often in short supply as were men and horses and this frequently limited the ability of garrisons to respond in sufficient force to punish hostile Indians or at times even to defend themselves.
The author asserts the chronic shortage of personnel was probably the most debilitating factor faced by the frontier army. Citing the army's own official records Utley shows that most units were rarely fully manned as provided for by law and regulation. He elaborates further, describing the ongoing battle for funding in the halls of Congress and in the court of public opinion of the era, which along with the harsh life and miserably low pay made recruitment very difficult. Many men opted instead to join militia forces which generally offered land bounties, shorter enlistments, and far more relaxed discipline compared to the regular army.
The book begins at the end of the Mexican War, noting the high spirits which prevailed as the army returned from its triumphant march into Mexico City and provides a short account of that war and the army's stunning defeat of a significantly larger force. This event along with the subsequent Gadsden Purchase vastly expanded the territory of the United States, for which the army was responsible to secure the peace and safety. It then discusses how the discovery of gold in California the following year set in motion one of the greatest migrations in history, as millions headed west in search of their fortunes. Subsequent discoveries of precious metals across the west brought ever more miners streaming westward as the country increasingly reveled in the ideal of manifest destiny. All these travelers demanded protection from hostile Indians, as did the farmers, ranchers, speculators and host of others who followed to build the rapidly expanding settlements, towns, and new territories. The demands of providing that protection were far beyond to capabilities of the peace time army, as it faced not only with defending the greatly expanded national borders, but also the many trails which were now crisscrossing that vast frontier. The magnitude of the challenge was simply beyond the resources allotted by Congress and the states and territories filled the gaps with volunteer units of militia.
Its explained the recent war had brought questions to the forefront regarding the reliability of part time volunteer soldiers and militias at least in the minds of the general staff and the War Department. It had also given the first generation of West Point trained, professional officers an opportunity to shine, which they lived up to commendably. Still the author points out, the national attitude did not favor a large standing army despite the necessity for one which the nation's rapid expansion clearly called for. Congress long embroiled in the debate over the benefits and perils of maintaining a large army dragged its feet at every opportunity to fund it. A situation which also frequently forestalled ratification of and appropriations to fulfill the governments obligations under the many Indian treaties. He also argues that the low pay, slow promotions, and harsh conditions wreaked havoc on the army's leadership in the 1850's. Citing as evidence the host of capable officers who resigned during this time, but who would return to lead the great armies of the Civil War and indelibly make their mark on history, like Grant, McClellan, and Sherman.(31)
Despite the few noted shortcomings this is an outstanding reference for academic inquiries regarding the frontier army and its dealings with the Amerindians of the West and is often found on the required reading lists for college courses on the topic. Interestingly enough though this book, as well as its companion volume entitled, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866-1891, might never have reached the printer, but for the fortuitous decision of MacMillan Publishing executive Peter Ritner back in 1967. Utley had originally signed a deal to write the second book in The MacMillan Wars of the United States Series. The contract called for his history of the frontier army to be inclusive of the period from the Mexican-American War through the 1890 Wounded Knee incident. However Utley had “reached his word limit” by the time he got to 1865 and asked the series editor, Louis Morton of Dartmouth College, for permission to write the second book covering the remaining quarter century. Morton nixed the idea, adamant that the flow of the series be maintained. However several other writing projects for the series were behind schedule. Under pressure to keep the publishing schedule on track, Ritner overruled Morton's objections and included both volumes in the series.2 Thus it was merely a happy circumstance, brought about by the demands of the corporate publishing world, which has preserved this illuminating work for future generations. Perusing the author's website however, one comes away with a sense that Utley felt vindicated with Ritner's decision at the time and even more so when both volumes were selected to be republished under the Bison logo of the University of Nebraska Press in 1981 and 1984 respectively. An irony one might suspect was probably not lost, but more likely relished by Utley and certainly this is a worthy bit of praise in itself.
Over the past half century Utley's pen has indeed been prolific, having written more than sixty books, the majority written in conjunction with his duties for the National Parks to which can be added dozens of pamphlets and brochures published by the government. He has authored eighteen works written “on his own time” which have been published by academic and commercial interests, the majority coming after his retirement from government service in 1980. He has also edited several books and served on the editorial boards of numerous academic periodicals and journals as well as being an adviser and commentator on several television projects produced for PBS, the Discovery Channel, and A&E Networks. His work has been honored with nearly every accolade awarded in the field, some three dozen in all. Indeed the Western Historical Association headquartered at the University of Missouri at St. Louis has memorialized his rightful place in the annals of American historiography, annually presenting the Robert M. Utley Book Award for the best non-fiction book on the military history of western North America.
Although his is hardly a household name, and sadly it is not likely to become so, outside of the academy and a smattering of history buffs. This would truly be a shame, because Robert Utley is a national literary and historic treasure himself. More than thirty years after his “retirement” and now in his eighties, Utley remains in good health, besides some hearing loss and is still a prolific writer. His latest book, a biography of Geronimo, which he says delves into the early days of the legendary Apache warrior was just released last year. 2012 also marked fifty years since Utley's first literary release, Custer and the Great Controversy: Origin and Development of a Legend hit the shelves in 1962. and one would think that would make Utley a legend himself. Frontiersmen in Blue is like all of his works, concise, balanced, and exceedingly readable despite its mentioned shortcomings and should be read by all serious scholars on the topic

[Terry Tucker · Rating 5 out of 5]

Not much has changed since the 1850’S in terms of policy and execution for the US Military.

This book looks at the development of policy, campaigns, strategy, and development of the US Army from 1848 to 1865. The author, is former chief historian for the National Park Service and is formerly Professor of History of the University of New Mexico at Las Cruces. This book was first published in 1967 and subsequent republish in 1981.
It is an even handed and balanced look.

The book is divided into 16 chapters plus the usual rest. There are 349 reading pages. The book is rich with detailed maps- I find maps absolutely indispensable. The book is rich with primary sources from the US Archives and actual diary entries. The bibliography could stand alone as a reference for this period.
I read this book about 25 years ago when I was on active duty. Rereading it has given me a greater appreciation for the scholarly effort that was made.

The background of this book is a run up to the Civil War. The book even handedly covers the travesties and brutalities of the era and does so with class.

In quick succession – the annexation of Texas (1845), the Oregon boundary dispute (1846), and treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in (1848) transformed the country into a transcontinental one, and added more than a million square miles of territory.
The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 plus the annexation of Texas and the Oregon boundary dispute left over a million square miles of territory in limbo until after the Mexican American War.
For example, when dealing with the Plains Indians after the Mexican American War, the Federal government – the US Army – was faced with two policy objectives. Prevent the outbreak of hostilities in one geographical area, and, in the other, to end hostilities that were already underway.

This remark is about the insistence of Texas Leaders that the federal government do something about protecting Texas in 1845/1846; it is telling and speaks to the policy and budget problems that plagued the government and US Army.
“Theoretically, they were quite willing to turn the task of protecting the frontier over to the federal government, but were practically unwilling to accept the plan; they (Texans) demanded that the work be done through their institutions and leadership – at federal expense…. The Texans demanded that the United States should muster the Texas Rangers into federal service, pay them with federal money and let them run all the belligerents out of the territory.” ( And this is why the US places Human Rights stipulations on its missions.)

The responsibility for this enlargement of the national domain fell on the US Army with its obligations to explore and map the territories, improve the travel routes, open new routes, foster communication and transportation and act as police. In Texas at this time, in 1845, the military could only muster 93 officers and 1,462 enlisted, or 1.4 soldiers for the 1000 miles of border from El Paso to the Gulf of Mexico. By 1855 the number had risen to 121 Officers and 2,727 enlisted, or 2.7 Soldiers. When the string of frontier defensive posts that was started in 1849 – along the 98th Meridian – it was obsolete within 2 years.

Lastly, strategies developed by the US Military based on Washington’s policies, would look good on paper , but as it worked out, too few men and resources to accomplish all the objectives and obligations. Widely published tragedies by the news would compound the problems as politicians made expedient knee-jerk decisions and enraged mobs took the law into their own hands. Lastly, the civilian departments that were pledged to assume management of many activities that the US Army – by default and order – were charged with, were extremely late emerging and would not coordinate their activities with District and Local Commanders. Conversely, Commanders were openly contemptuous of civil officials and would usurp their authority at every turn. Some Commanders would have running feuds with the citizens of the district. It would take direct intervention by the Secretary of State, by replacing certain individuals, in order to set things right.

Among the legacies of the frontier army, the record of campaigns present the most active peace establishments recorded in the history of the country. Another was the accumulation of knowledge of the tribes and unconventional warfare. Unfortunately the US Army never formally codified this knowledge, nor was it studied – until almost 100 years later. Lastly, The Army learned two important precedents. The importance of the Winter Campaign (Cols Conner and Carson – 1863-1664) that General Sheridan would later further develop; and the growing practice of “total war.”

All in all an excellent read. The companion book to this is called “Frontier Regulars, The United States Army and the Indian, 1866-1891 by the same author Robert M. Utley

[Iain · Rating 2 out of 5]

Though I like Utley's work, this was a bit of a chore to get through. I suspect it was written early in his career before he'd developed his art. The fact that it covers familiar ground (to anyone well read on the era) with little new insight didn't help.

[Donna Dexter · Rating 5 out of 5]

Very informative

This book is more academic than many works on the American West and can be a bit dry. But for students of the subject it is very interesting and ties together events often treated separately.

[Fredrick Danysh · Rating 5 out of 5]

The story of the US army in the wars against the American Indian. Understrength, under paid, and under fed with cruel discpline, they helped to settle the American frontier with towns springing up around their forts in many cases. Immigrants, illeterates, and criminals made up a good portin of this army.

[Jefferson Coombs · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book, along with its companion, is a very good account of the US military in the development of the West.