Charles Hodge: Guardian of American Orthodoxy

by Paul C. Gutjahr

Charles Hodge (1797-1878) was one of nineteenth-century America's leading theologians, owing in part to a lengthy teaching career, voluminous writings, and a faculty post at one of the nation's most influential schools, Princeton Theological Seminary. Surprisingly, the only biography of this towering figure was written by his son, just two years after his death. Paul C. Gutjahr's book is the first modern critical biography of a man some have called the "Pope of Presbyterianism."

Hodge's legacy is especially important to American Presbyterians. His brand of theological conservatism became vital in the 1920s, as Princeton Seminary saw itself, and its denomination, split. The conservative wing held unswervingly to the Old School tradition championed by Hodge, and ultimately founded the breakaway Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

The views that Hodge developed, refined, and propagated helped shape many of the central traditions of twentieth- and twenty-first-century American evangelicalism. Hodge helped establish a profound reliance on the Bible among Evangelicals, and he became one of the nation's most vocal proponents of biblical inerrancy. Gutjahr's study reveals the exceptional depth, breadth, and longevity of Hodge's theological influence and illuminates the varied and complex nature of conservative American Protestantism.

Genres: Biography, Church History, Theology, History

528 pages, Hardcover

First published January 27, 2011

Reviews

[Melody Bringe · Rating 5 out of 5]

Well written. Loved learning more about American church history (and Presbyterianism in particular) through this look at Charles Hodge. I appreciated how the author covers a broad sweep of time, from the RevWar era through 1900, as Charles Hodge interacts with the people and events of his time. Highly recommend.

[Corey · Rating 5 out of 5]

I'll forgive the dozen or so typos, because this was a very good book that was published by Oxford Press. Weighing in at 400 pages, this biography of the "Pope of Presbyterianism," Charles Hodge is quite rewarding. I learned a lot about the man himself, who was professor and leader of Princeton Theological Seminary during the 19th century, but I also learned a good bit of history. During a time when the Presbyterian Church in America was facing division between the Old and New Schools, Hodge was a theological stalwart, and used his position at the seminary as well as his editorial, the Repertory, in order to defend Reformed confessional theology against those of the New School. Hodge lived and wrote during the Civil War as well, which divided not only the Northern and Southern states, but also the American Presbyterian Church. During this time, Hodge leveraged his influence in order draw a more moderate line between the abolitionists and those who were pro-slavery. His efforts satisfied neither party. This entire section of the book was enlightening for me, and gave me a greater sense of context and perspective to the controversy. By the end of Hodge's life, he taught more graduate students than any other professor in the entire country. He helped keep Princeton Seminary true to the Westminster Confession of Faith, and earned a reputation of immense respect among friend and foe alike. Towards the end of his career, over 500 friends and family gathered to honor him at his semi-centennial as a seminary professor. At the event, it was said, "While we honor him for the great head which God has given him, we love him for his still greater heart." Hodge was not merely an ivory tower academic. His was a man of great devotion and piety. And his theology was for the church and the propagation of the gospel to foreign countries. Today, Hodge has been largely forgotten, though his influence is still felt. I am grateful that two significant biographies were published around the same time to help the church, and Presbyterians in particular, learn of and remember a man who was indeed, "The Pride of Princeton."

[Jeff Garrison · Rating 4 out of 5]

Charles Hodge taught at Princeton Theological Seminary for over fifty years and was perhaps the most prominent American theologian of the 19th Century. During his career, not only did he teach a significant number of Presbyterian ministers, he also taught a large number ofBaptist, Congregational and Episcopal clergy, many who went on to teach in seminaries around the country. His influence at Princeton continued long after his death as his son and other students continued his tradition. Interestingly, until 2011, there has not been a major biography of Hodge since 1880, when his son published a biography just two years after his father's death. This is one of two major biographies of Hodge to be published in 2011; the other being Andrew Hoffecker's Charles Hodge: The Pride of Princeton (I haven't read it)

Hodge was born in 1797 into a Philadelphia family involved in shipping and international trade. The family was also instrumental in the development of a college that would later become Princeton University. Hodge's own life would be tied to Princeton, as all of his advance education was at the school with the exception of a year spent in Europe studying. When Hodge was an infant his father died from Yellow Fever. Although he was born with a prominent name,without a father and with the demise of American shipping in the late 18thCentury, Hodge's mother struggled to raise him and his brother Hugh. Through her efforts and the support of family and friends, both sons were educated at Princeton (Hugh became a physician). They were also raised within the Presbyterian Church and taught the Westminster Catechism. Gutjahr makes the case that Hodge's upbringing, especially how his family found themselves dependent on the charity of others, set his course for life. He valued education, was generous and hospitable. (22)

One of the first things I remember hearing about Hodge when I was just beginning my theological studies was a statement made (partly in jest) at his 50thanniversary of teaching at Princeton Seminary where he bragged that nothing had changed in tenure. Such a view makes Hodge out to be a stern and inflexible teacher within the Old School Presbyterian tradition. Gutjahr dispels such a myth. His portrait of Hodge's life shows him a man that cared deeply about others, was grounded in a deep personal piety, who enjoyed simple things of life (such as gardening, which was the only thing he every bragged about), and loved children and family. Hodge was married twice and greatly grieved at the death of his first wife. He delighted in his children (one of whom took over his position at Princeton) and grandchildren. Although Hodge belief in Augustinian Calvinism as represented in the Westminster Confession of Faith remained constant throughout his life, Gutjahr makes the point that he was not the fundamentalist that would be found in Princeton later in the 19th and early20th Centuries. Hodge, who was also always interested in science and endorsed the day-age theory of creation instead of holding to the literal seven day creation of Genesis. (368)

Gutjahr also shows how Hodge grounded his theology in a school of philosophy known as Scottish Common Sense Realism. This thought,popularized in America by John Witherspoon (a Presbyterian clergyman who was President of Princeton and the only clergy to sign the Declaration of Independence) dominated American intellectual life in the years before the Civil War. Scottish Common Sense Realism attempted to hold to the importance of science as it had developed during the Enlightenment while tying it to a religious base. It taught three basic concepts: 1. Basic truths are "self-evident." 2. In addition to the five normal senses, people possess a common moral sense allowing all people to distinguish between good and evil. 3. The use of the inductive method (as taught by Francis Bacon) allows for facts abou tour world to be known through experience. (39) This philosophy modified American Calvinism from the harsher elements of earlier Calvinists as it made more room for individual responsibility in that all people (not just the elect)had a common moral grounding. (At some point, but not in this book review, I should explore the relation between Common Sense Realism and the concept of "Common Grace" that rose within Dutch Calvinism and how the two of them relate to Calvin's third use of the law).

Hodge rose to prominence within the denomination during the 1837 split between the Old School and New School. The New School softened its Calvinistic beliefs by emphasizes the role of emotions and allowing the use of revivalist techniques in the conversion experience. Hodge defended the Old School position challenging the thoughts of Albert Barnes (major theologian of the New School position), evangelist Charles Finney and others in his popular journal, Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review. He also had problems with rise of Christian volunteer societies in the19th Century. Although he supported various Christian denominations working together to share the gospel overseas, closer to home he warned of their danger within congregations and denominations, reminding others that they were not the church proper. (166)

One of the more controversial issues that Hodge faced in his lifetime was slavery. Gutjahr continually makes the case that Hodge hated the system even though at one point he owned a slave who served as a housekeeper. It appears Hodge treated her well, encouraged education and Christian discipleship for all slaves, but Gutjahr doesn't give us any more details about how he came to purchase her and what happened that led to her freedom (or sale). In the years leading up to the Civil War, heal ways suggested that slavery should be gradually eliminated and saw danger in the extreme abolitionists who demanded an immediate end to slavery. Seeing nothing in scripture the expressly prohibited slavery, Hodge did not see the justification for such splits. In the Civil War, he was firmly on the side of the Union but mostly because he felt the Union was necessary, not because he felt the war would end slavery.(325) Gutjahr devotes a whole chapter to slavery and later another chapter on his support of Monogenism (which held that all humanity came from a single source and not multiple sources). The polygenists (humanity came from multiple sources) was used by some Southerners to support slavery, but Hodge felt such a belief went against Scripture. (It would be interesting to follow how the Southern acceptance of polygenism changed over the 19th and 20th Century leading to the Scopes Trial as there does seem to bea great disconnect here). Thepolygenism/monogenism debate helped Hodge change his position on slavery and by the time Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, Hodge supported it. (350).

During the time of Southern succession, Hodge was grieved by the nation's split, but he hoped that the church (Old School Presbyterians) could demonstrate Christian unity. This was not to be and Hodge, who fought to keep the church from mirroring the nation, was deeply depressed about the split within the church. Likewise,Hodge didn't agree with the Northern Old and New School reunion in the years after the war, preferring a reunion with the Southern Church. That was not to happen. The Southern Old and New Schools had merged in 1863 and the Southern and Northern streams wouldn't come back together until over a century had passed since Hodge's death. Hodge served as a moderator of the Old School Presbyterian Church 1846General Assembly, an assembly in which he encouraged the development of Presbyterian parochial schools. This idea didn't develop into a reality as few within the denomination supported it.

Gutjahr follows Hodge's battles with Transcendentalism, Mercersburg Theology, German idealism, and with the Southern Old School leader, James Henley Thornwell. Thornwell followed Hodge as moderator of the denomination. Although the two agreed on many things, when it came to their doctrine of the church, the disagreed. Hodge insisted that the Bible allowed for latitude for church government while Thornwell, who maintained that the "Bible is our only rule and when it is silent, we have no right to speak," believed God had set down the Presbyterian system within scripture. (288) When the 1843 General Assembly elevated ministers above elders, making them members of a presbytery and not a local church, Thornwell feared this would denigrate the role of ruling elder and lead to "High Churchism and Popery." (290) Gutjahr argues that the battle between Thornwell and Hodge demonstrates how, in matters of the church, Hodge could be a "biblical pragmatist." Another area where Hodge went against many in his own camp was in his support of accepting Roman Catholic baptism. The baptism, set forth in the Trinitarian formula, was enough for Hodge to insist that it was valid even though he disagreed with much of their theology and polity. Gutjahr also makes the case that Hodge could be more lenient and gracious toward those outside of the Reformed Faith than within it. If one was going to be a Presbyterian, Hodge had higher expectations how they conformed to the Westminster Catechism.

I was shocked with how little Hodge depended on the actual writings of John Calvin. His own theological training used the theology of Francis Turretin (Swiss Reformed). Examining the index to Hodge's own three volume Systemic Theology shows only a moderate number of references to Calvin. Within the text there are a few footnotes to the Institutes of the Christian Religion, but not as many as I would have thought. This may be more of a personal preference(or maybe it was because of the times didn’t demand as detailed footnoting asis expected today). For me, I would have to credit the course on Calvin's Institutes,as taught by Charles Partee, to be the most influential class during my studies of theology. (See my review of Charles Partee, The Theology of John Calvin)

Gutjahr concludes the book with an Epilogue that briefly discusses Hodge's legend continued on after his death through the Presbyterian Fundamentalist Crisis of the 1920s. A whole book could be written on Hodge's influence and the epilogue just "wet's one thirst" for such a work. That said, there are several good books on this transition, but they only briefly mention Charles Hodge. See George Mardsen, Fundamentalism and American Culture:The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelism, 1870-1925, and Bradley Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, & Moderates.

This is a major book to work through and I would only recommend it to those interested in 19th Century American history, specifically intellectually and theological thought.

[Nicholas Perez · Rating 5 out of 5]

I came across this book by accident years ago in the library at Pepperdine University. Shortly thereafter I purchased a copy of it. I've owned a copy of Hodge's _Systematic Theology_ for years, a reference work in my personal library. But this book helped me get to know the man behind that substantial theology.

Gutjahr notes that no biography on Hodge had been written for over 130 years before this publication (p.4). Which is unfortunate given Hodge's influence upon American Protestantism since the mid-19th century. Indeed, Hodge's impact upon the theology of Princeton continued into the third decade of the 20th century when Machen left Princeton to found Westminster Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania.

As a member of the Restoration Movement, I was particularly interested in how Lockean/Common Sense philosophy influenced Hodge's theology. Restoration Movement churches (esp. churched of Christ) roots go back to a contemporary of Hodge: Alexander Campbell. Both Campbell and Hodge were well-versed in the Common Sense philosophy of John Locke. So it was interesting to see the difference between how Lockean philosophy influenced Hodge over against how the same philosophical framework influenced Campbell. Their trajectories have similar starting points, but their theological and anthropological conclusions are worlds apart.

The reason for the substantial differences in theology can be traced back to how creeds and confessions operate within their reading of Scripture. Both Campbell and Hodge believed in the infallibility and sufficiency of Scripture. Both on the one hand, Campbell rejected creeds and confessions. Hodge, on the other hand, a Presbyterian, stuck closely to the Westminster Confession. It provided guardrails against heterodox and heretical views. In this way, Hodge became the "guardian of American orthodoxy."

Meeting the man responsible for the tome was truly enjoyable. Over the course of year, I got to know him through a slow reading of this work. The following are noteworthy (to me) quotes from the book:

"[A]ccording to Scottish Common Sense Realism, the truth is both self-evident and available to every properly cultivated individual. Expose people to the truth, and they could not help but find it convincing." (71)
"For the Princeton faculty, such a high regard for authority found its deepest root in the belief that God was absolutely sovereign in all that he chose to do. His choices could be influenced or thwarted by anything outside himself. There was no mob in heaven directing the actions of the Almighty. Princeton's theology was strikingly undemocratic for the time as the Seminary's faculty refused to bow to pressures that compromised its views on thorough clerical training and the proper obedience due to recognized sources of divine authority. Those at Princeton firmly believed that just as God was best able to manage the heavens and the earth, so were seminary-trained ministers best able to manage the affairs of God on earth. Such earthly management was serious business, and its proper execution required the best theological education. The Princeton faculty felt the weight of the mission entrusted to them; they were training young men to steward God's redemptive plan for America, and that training was rooted in the confessional statements of the Reformation, not the morass of new theological corruptions springing forth from more democratic notions of human-ability and God's subservience to the preferences of his creation." (96)
"[Hodge] noted that from the earliest history of the Christian church, 'there have been two great systems of doctrine in perpetual conflict. The one begins with God, the other with man.'" (271)
"God had used words to convey himself to humanity, and he had chosen the *exact* words he wanted to accomplish this revelation...The words [the Bible] contained held common, universal meanings understandable to any person using their 'common sense' and employing their rational faculty." (275)
"Although men and women could never know the hearts of others, the best single indicator as to whether a person might have this indwelling of the Holy Spirit was the manifestation of the fruits of the Spirit in his or her life...The Scriptures, however, were unequivocal in showing that the true church was composed of everyone whose heart has been enlightened by the Holy Spirit and as a result believed certain fundamental truths of the Gospel." (283-84)
"[Hodge] was not interest in theological innovation because he believed it impossible to improve on orthodox belief. The only things that were new in orthodox theology were various heresies, and Hodge had no interest in distinguishing himself as a heretic." (363)
"What is Darwinism? Hodge answered, 'It is atheism.'" (369)

[Samuel G. Parkison · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was a thoroughly readable biography. I enjoyed it very much. My two takeaways: first, one can never underestimate the potency of discipling one’s children faithfully and intentionally. The theological work that characterized all of Hodge’s faithful, boring (praise God for boring faithfulness) career can be attributed largely to his mother’s consistency with training him up with the Westminster Shorter Catechism. Those young years proved to be foundation for 7+ years of theological fidelity... for the most part, which brings me to my second takeaway: humility cannot be underestimated in the theological enterprise. By far, Hodge’s most embarrassing (and damaging) comments were on slavery. And though he began to step onto a heartening trajectory arguing against the racial superiority of the Slave-owning south toward he end of the Civil War, his commentary was damaging. Not only was his commentary directly damaging to image beaters, they were also indirectly damaging because so many Christians have good excuse to not even hear out anything else he had to say. I see the temptation to settle presumptuously into a conviction and dig my heals in, come what may, in my own heart. I grieve the way that kind of presumptuous thinking blinded Hodge, and I shudder to think of what blind spots I have on account of similar sinfulness.

All that said, I think it would be a grave mistake to disregard Hodge as valuable contribution to Christian theology. Whatever technical theological beef you have with the phrase, simul justus et peccator, there is a concrete and literal, experiential sense in which it is undeniable. We are all tangles of contradiction, and to demand perfect consistency of our human instructors (save Jesus) before we’re willing to learn from them is to effectively assure that we learn from no one. I think God uses tangles of contradiction on purpose, to protect us from ever being tempted to worship people rather than God. “We have this treasure in jars of clay...”

[Hank Pharis · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a great and needed biography. Charles Hodge is probably the second most influential theologian in U.S. history behind Jonathan Edwards. But unfortunately today he is much less well known. He was the leading theologian of Princeton Seminary for 58 years. Two of his sons and his grandson then also taught at Princeton. (199)

A few items of interest:

Charles Hodge has been called “the Pope of Presbyterianism” and the greatest Reformed theologian the U.S. has ever produced. (3) Others have called him “America’s greatest theologian.” (4)

For three years Hodge had to teach at home because of a congenital deformity in his right hip joint which made him unable to use his leg. (150)

Hodge owned some household slaves (156) and argued for a middle ground between the abolitionists and the pro-slavery forces. He argued for gradual emancipation.

When Hodge went to study in Germany he needed a tutor to help him improve his German and he hired a then unknown young man named George Muller. (109)

“Hodge differed even from Calvin on the subject of the sacraments … Calvin held that there was a mysterious power in the sacraments beyond human understanding that touched those who received them with God’s grace. … Hodge took a harder line against any notions that the sacraments had a mysterious, inexplicable power. Without reservation, he stressed the efficacy of the sacraments was solely tied to the faith of the recipient. The sacrament was neither a sign nor a seal of God’s grace without faith on the part of those who partook of it.” (210)

(Note: I'm stingy with stars. For me 2 stars means a good book. 3 = Very good; 4 = Outstanding {only about 5% of the books I read merit this}; 5 = All time favorites {one of these may come along every 400-500 books})

[Zach · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a very good biography. Gutjahr does an excellent job placing Hodge into his American context and exploring how he developed and adapted his childhood Calvinism into language and ideas Antebellum/Civil War/Reconstruction America could digest. His attention to Hodge’s writings is worth the price of the book.

Two shortcomings. First, Gutjahr seems to have little grasp of the history of Reformed theology. He often cites views apparently developed by Hodge without recognizing Hodge is simply quoting the Westminster standards. There is almost no discussion of where Hodge fits in the history of Reformed theology (other than obligatory references to Francis Turretin).

Second, Gutjahr reads Hodge as a proto-fundamentalist, which is a bit anachronistic and probably not a movement Hodge would feel himself aligned with. His successors such as J Gresham Machen certainly would not have considered themselves Fundamentalists apart from the necessity of church conflict.

[Marla Fitts · Rating 5 out of 5]

Interesting

I rate this book as 5 stars because I found it very interesting and informative. I am fascinated with the history of Christianity and feel like I learned a lot from reading this. I had a little bit of a hard time following at times. There were places that seemed to skip around. But over all a very good read.

[Josh · Rating 3 out of 5]

Wonderfully detailed in narrative facts but notably lacking nuance in theological matters.

[Tom · Rating 5 out of 5]

I'm impressed with this very fair and balanced treatment of a great theologian. Besides, you gotta love it when his dog is named "Hodge."

I've finished the book and I am impressed with Gutjahr's scholarship and balance. I believe he treated Hodge fairly and handled the great wealth of material with care. I would recommend this book for any interested in learning more of Charles Hodge.

I was particularly concerned how he would handle Hodge's comments about the lack of originality at Princeton Seminary. Critics usually bash Hodge in "the darkest hues possible,..." a man and a seminary "hopelessly mired" in 18th and 19th century rationalism. Here's how Guntjahr handles that: "Taken in its original context, Hodge's comment does capture the very essence of the man. He was not interested in theological innovation because he believed it impossible to improve on orthodox belief. The only things that were new in orthodox theology were various heresies, and Hodge had no interest in distinguishing himself as a heretic. His role, and the role of the Seminary, had always been to be guardians of orthodoxy, not creators of new strains of christian doctrine." (p. 363). Bravo!

His penultimate chapter, "O Death, where is Thy Sting?", sums up Hodge's life this way: "Posterity might remember Hodge for his magnificent mind, but for those who knew him best, what set him apart was his even-more-magnificent heart." (p. 375). It was, after all, a heart devoted fully to Christ. May the same thing be said for all who read this wonderful biography!

[Brian Collins · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was an enjoyable book on many levels. Most theological books have minimal illustration, but this book opens with several pages of pen and ink sketches of the major people the reader will encounter in Hodge's life. Accompanying each illustration is a brief biography. Paintings and photographs abound throughout the book. Once grown, Gutjahr divides the book into parts based on the decades of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of each section is a painting or photograph of Hodge from that decade. Hodge's friends, family, colleagues, and interlocutors are also pictured throughout. The illustrations and their captions added to the quality of the book.

Of course the heart of the book is the text. It does a good job of explaining Hodge's theological positions. Gutjahr, for the most part, does not engage in his own evaluation of Hodge's views. Rather, he presents Hodge's own justifications for them and places them in the intellectual context of Hodge's time. At times Gutjahr defends Hodge from unjust characterizations. Finally, though Gutjahr does not place as much emphasis as Hoffecker on Hodge's spiritual life, this aspect of Hodge is not neglected either.

[Andrew Canavan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Charles Hodge may have had to wait a century between biographies, but Paul Gutjahr's work was well worth the wait. If you have no idea who Charles Hodge is, read this book. If the name "Charles Hodge" provokes visions of a rigid and cold Calvinist, read this book. As a Presbyterian, even I had my doubts about Hodge based on many of the caricatures that prevail today. Reading this book completely changed my mind. Though this book is scholarly and rigorously researched, it is also well-written and, dare I say it, a page turner. After reading it, I felt as though Charles Hodge had become a friend and mentor. There were several passages that brought me close to tears (manly tears, of course). By all means, read this book!

[Vaclav · Rating 4 out of 5]

excellent! i read this in Wooster, Ohio! we have such a great heritage in our protestant and evangelical faith! wow! we don't realize how much we in North America owe this man, we evangelicals, for his faithful stand against the liberalism and the extremes of higher criticism of the late 1800s. Hodge was plain in his teaching of the gospel truth and the Scriptures at large, but what he taught resonated with the love for the reformers and the reformation, faithfully teaching the truth as it is in Jesus, and not going to the left or the right. he was a pillar in his day, and still is through his books and this memory of his life!

[Alex · Rating 4 out of 5]

Great overview of his life. The chapters are not too long and Gutjahr's narrative is easy to read. I had to return it before I finished. I stopped at chapter 40. I give it 4 stars not because it was lacking something necessarily, but because I reserve 5 stars for books that really challenge and effect my thinking to a great extent. For example, John Stott's The Cross of Christ was one of those.

[Ivan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent read! Concise chapters, engaging style, meticulous research, edifying subject, and powerful life.

"Posterity might remember Hodge for his magnificent mind, but for those who knew him best, what set him apart was his even-more-magnificent heart."