Nuclear Fear: A History of Images

by Spencer R. Weart

Our thinking is inhabited by images-images of sometimes curious and overwhelming power. The mushroom cloud, weird rays that can transform the flesh, the twilight world following a nuclear war, the white city of the future, the brilliant but mad scientist who plots to destroy the world-all these images and more relate to nuclear energy, but that is not their only common bond. Decades before the first atom bomb exploded, a web of symbols with surprising linkages was fully formed in the public mind. The strange kinship of these symbols can be traced back, not only to medieval symbolism, but still deeper into experiences common to all of us. This is a disturbing it shows that much of what we believe about nuclear energy is not based on facts, but on a complex tangle of imagery suffused with emotions and rooted in the distant past. Nuclear Fear is the first work to explore all the symbolism attached to nuclear bombs, and to civilian nuclear energy as well, employing the powerful tools of history as well as findings from psychology, sociology, and even anthropology. The story runs from the turn of the century to the present day, following the scientists and journalists, the filmmakers and novelists, the officials and politicians of many nations who shaped the way people think about nuclear devices. The author, a historian who also holds a Ph.D. in physics, has been able to separate genuine scientific knowledge about nuclear energy and radiation from the luxuriant mythology that obscures them. In revealing the history of nuclear imagery, Weart conveys the hopeful message that once we understand how this imagery has secretly influenced history and our own thinking, we can move on to a clearer view of the choices that confront our civilization.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Science

552 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1988

Reviews

[Mark Bowles · Rating 5 out of 5]

Nuclear Fear
Spencer R. Weart

The mind is a storehouse for every image it has ever seen with most of the pictures lodged within the subconscious, unknow¬ingly effecting the human psyche. Spencer R. Weart, in Nuclear Fear, studied the importance of images of nuclear energy in the 20th century that were linked to social and psychological forces. Nuclear fear itself is created from the combination of the images of fantasy, reality, and personal feelings. The main theme and basis of most of the symbols and beliefs of the book is transmu¬tation which is the passage through destruction to rebirth. It is with this transmutation that nuclear fear can be changed into nuclear hope, and as some prophesied, the Golden Age. Weart's main thesis and conclusion was that the images we are exposed to have a more influential place in history than had previously been thought.
The book was separated into five sections, ending with a conclusion and a personal note. The chronological span of the book was from 1902 to 1986, but the structure was arranged topi¬cally. The sources of information that he chose were from psy¬chology, examining hours of session time, and anthropology and sociology in which he studied field observations and polls. His main sources were from history and the records of the past. He also frequently used the scientometric historiographical approach of quantitative measures by counting various nuclear-related titles in periodicals (the graph on page 387 is an example).
The early years of nuclear power were characterized by unreasonable aspirations from 1902 to 1938. The theme of transmu¬tation, thorium changing into radium and the production of great energy, resulted in fantastic optimism that society would be transformed into a new Eden. This was the image of the White City, the city of atoms. Contrary images, which cultivated radio¬active fears, were those of the mad scientist, atomic bomb, and world destruction. This led to the radium-duality controversy with the image of rays healing the body or creating hideous monsters. The main themes of every fantasy tale told in these years included a forbidden secret, as with the energy of the atom, a powerful being who controlled the secret, and a device, such as a robot or monster, whereby the master worked his good or evil.
From this world of fantasy emerged the confrontation of nuclear reality from 1939 to 1952. Frisch discovered uranium fission in 1938 which led Fermi and Szilard to work on the first atomic bomb with Oppenheimer in charge of the Manhattan Project and the Los Alamos laboratory. These events culminated with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the 509th bomber squadron (this was to be my father's squadron some ten years later). Cliche experts likened it to the creation of a Franken¬stein with the unleashing of the secret forces of the universe. It was not long until the Soviet Union had its own bomb, and it was America's turn for fear. A Civil Defense was created to spread images of war to desensitize and reassure the American people. By the early fifties, the U.S. government felt that the only defense against nuclear bombs was a psychological attack by developing more bombs. This was the beginning of the arms race.
For the next ten years, from 1953 to 1963, new optimism and fear were born. An atomic propaganda board was set up to promote commercial and industrial uses for nuclear power. Atoms for Peace was established to counter a new fear that arose with the detona¬tion of the hydrogen bomb, which was 1,000 times as powerful as the Hiroshima bomb. More contradictory images flooded the public such as magical atoms with healing power and the fear of the contamination of nature through the fallout of bomb testing. These thoughts resulted in the image of survival itself. Some saw it as the annihilation of the human race, others saw the survi¬vors as mere savages, while the transmutational optimistic hoped for escape from victimization through rebirth. This greatest period of nuclear fear ended with a calming and cathartic effect of the Cuban missile crisis. Detente, arms control, deterrence, cognitive dissonance, and denial all played a part in the new atomic silence.
The control of the threat of catastrophe or doomsday changed from politics to the realm of technology between the years 1956 to 1986. In the sixties there was the fear that a mistaken attack through faulty technology would set off a war. As with the bombs, nuclear reactors stimulated fear with the possible meltdown through the China Syndrome. Hope was also focused on the reactors with the Nuplex which was a conceptual, utopian, nuclear communi¬ty. Another technology which brought opposition was the antibal¬listic missile that was proposed for six American cities. This was opposed because these cities immediately became intensive, first-strike targets for the Soviet Union. The energy crisis of 1973 resulted in the push for alternative technological energy sources. Nuclear reactors were put to work to help alleviate the problem amidst fears that were to be enhanced by accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. By the end of the seventies and the early eighties, there was a new war fear as nuclear weapons increased, like the proposed Star Wars defense system. Scientists predicted that after a war the sky would become black and the earth would cool down; thus, a new image--nuclear winter.
After World War II, there was always a search for renewal with subtle symbolism of writers and artists. Some viewed atomic power as from God Himself as a way to lift the minority of good Christians off the earth. Other forms of optimism centered on the possibility of people living in space colonies or on the moon. Pessimism also existed as the poet Auden called the postwar times the "age of anxiety." These two contradicting ideas were symbol¬ized by the dual imagery of the mushroom cloud. The mushroom was part of a traditional fungi symbolism which stood for poison and shelter for life. Thus the white mushroom cloud could express both the hopes and fears of the nuclear age.
The conclusion of the book gave a chronological overview of the major events in this century that were associated with nucle¬ar power. Weart said that imagery helped to focus social tradi¬tions, tensions, and personal beliefs in a person's mind and that it was strongest when it joined the laws of physics. He said that imagery had one final benefit. In order for a solution to be found, the answer had to be imagined; therefore, we must imagine a better world.
I enjoyed this book because it seemed to be an all-encom¬passing, descriptive survey of the images that were associated with nuclear power. I use the word descriptive with a verbal connotation because Weart chose not to include pictures with the book except for a couple of graphs. Verbally, I would compare the thoroughness of this book with Cohen's, but I feel that Weart did not choose the proper medium for his intent. I do not feel that a history of images (an interesting concept) should be told by words alone. The subject itself demands that images be used to facilitate the telling of the story. I was familiar with few of the images of which Weart spoke, and the only movies that I saw were Frankenstein and a segment of Dr. Strangelove. Pictures of the main images of each chapter would have helped to stir the memories of those who have repressed their fears and elucidate the images for others like myself who have not encountered the obscure ones like the White City.
Before reading this book, I was of the opinion that we should not use nuclear energy for commercial means because of the danger and long-term effects of nuclear waste. Weart's argument for the danger of all forms of energy production was compelling. Coal pollution in the form of acid rain destroys crops and build¬ings at a cost of one billion dollars per year. The smog that is left over will hover in our air for years to come. Hundreds have also died from dam bursts; so, why should nuclear energy be any less dangerous? I agree that the maximum accident is a severe problem in itself; but with caution, I now feel that the benefits outweigh the danger. I agreed with all of Weart's personal notes at the end of the book. Nuclear reactors should be kept open as an energy option. If Iraq could have controlled 70 percent of the world's oil supply, nuclear energy would be in great demand. He also said that our main problem is to understand the causes of war. Hope¬fully, with a Middle East peace treaty, much of the despair of that world will be controlled. I also found it interesting that Weart said we must start from the fact that democratically-elect¬ed governments do not make war on each other. This is a comfort¬ing thought in light of the future Soviet elections.
If Weart were to add a chapter on nuclear fear in the nine¬ties it could be entitled "Third-World Fear." We can see today how close Saddam Hussain was to building his own bomb. Israel also has production capability and probably its own limited stockpile. The superpowers have realized the folly of the cold war and the arms race. The Soviet Union, breaking up day by day, has to now be more concerned with bread than atoms. That leaves the United States with no one to play the game with since Iraq has proven no match for even conventional warfare. China's nucle¬ar intention is left to be decided. My hope is that the United Nations and the United States can keep a watchful eye on the nuclear capability of the remaining nations with power hungry dictators who think they can rule the world.

[Kyla Dahlquist · Rating 5 out of 5]

Absolutely fascinating book with a very unique approach to the history of nuclear technology.

[Eric Layton · Rating 4 out of 5]

Excellent. I highly recommend it!

[Andrew Daniels · Rating 5 out of 5]

I've read this book like four times, its genius, it profoundly influenced me. There is nothing else like it anywhere.

[William Bornstein · Rating 5 out of 5]

This served as an excellent secondary source and host of primary sources for my senior thesis on the development of PSB and Advertising Council propagandas in regards to nuclear weapon development and stockpiling.

[வெ ராமசாமி · Rating 5 out of 5]

அணுக்கருவுலை பற்றிய பயப்பிராந்திகளுக்கு நிதானத்துடன் பதிலளிக்கும், அவற்றின் தோற்றத்தையும் வளர்ச்சியையும் குறித்த மிக முக்கியமான புத்தகம்.