Created in God's Image

by Anthony A. Hoekema

According to Scripture, humankind was created in the image of God. Hoekema discusses the implications of this theme, devoting several chapters to the biblical teaching on God's image, the teaching of philosophers and theologians through the ages, and his own theological analysis. Suitable for seminary-level anthropology courses, yet accessible to educated laypeople. Extensive bibliography, fully indexed.

Genres: Theology, Christian, Anthropology, Nonfiction, Christianity, School, Faith

278 pages, Paperback

First published March 1, 1986

About the author

Anthony A. Hoekema (1913-1988) was a Christian theologian of the Dutch Reformed tradition who served as professor of Systematic theology at Calvin Theological Seminary for twenty-one years.

Hoekema was born in the Netherlands but immigrated to the United States in 1923. He attended Calvin College (A.B.), the University of Michigan (M.A.), Calvin Theological Seminary (Th.B.) and Princeton Theological Seminary (Th.D., 1953). After pastoring several Christian Reformed churches (1944-56), he became Associate Professor of Bible at Calvin College (1956-58). From 1958 to 1979, when he retired, he was Professor of Systematic Theology at Calvin Theological Seminary in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Reviews

[Jeremy Fritz · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was a helpful starting point in studying the Image of God. Hoekema walks through many of the major questions in regards to theological anthropology drawing deeply from scripture and the Dutch Reformed tradition. I highly recommend!

[Josue · Rating 4 out of 5]

Aside from Hoekema's apparent belief that the universe is millions of years old, and apart from his apparent acceptance of psychologists and psychiatrists when counseling individuals, this is an excellent book! Those two issues that I disagree with are briefly mentioned as side notes. Everything else, I believe, is right on.

[Jacob Moore · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a helpful overview of a book on anthropology, which is one of the largest areas of Christian doctrine that is being tested these days. And considering that the "image of God" gets thrown around as reasoning for many things, we must grapple with what it is and how that orients our lives as those who live in the image of God.

As far as ways this book helps, Hoekema does offer many different ideas and viewpoints of ways that people have understood the image of God in Christian tradition and, to some small extent, in philosophical traditions. So in that way, it is helpful as a primer for newcomers to the topic to get introduced to the conversation. He does also seek to engage in an irenic manner with other theologians, which is always appreciated!

One major way in which this book is very helfpul is its insistence on incorporating the body as an essential part of the image of God. Rejecting any kind of Platonic notions of the body as somehow a distraction from the good life, he does an excellent job affirming the reality of the body and how that should even inform ecclesiological and counseling practices at the end. I was glad to see that and would hope more Christians take that to heart. In affirming the body, he also recognizes how the image of God primes us to be ready for the incarnation as well as how Christ comes to demonstrate the fullness of the image of God lived out in very pleasing ways.

However, a few things stand out as questions that I would have with the book after finishing:

First, his historical overview is very, very brief and he fails to interact with some notable figures. Most notably, he fails to interact with Augustine on the topic. Considering that we are in the image of *God* and that God is Triune, one would think that we should not be content merely to orient our doctrine of the image Christologically, but then follow Christ up into his life in the Triune Godhead. Augustine seeks to do exactly that in much of the latter portion of De Trinitate, and, while this does lead him to a kind of image that exists primarily in the mind, this image gets him to a great place where the image is bestowed upon us so that we can actually come to reflect upon and love God, which is the greatest gift that being covenant creatures with God in his image grants us! While this is a bit less realistic given they were contemporaries, and it is hard to know what knowledge they had of each other, one wishes that he would have been able to interact more excellently with JPII, who continues to have an excellent treatment and deep reading of Genesis and as he discusses the image of God in the first part of the Theology of the Body.

Additionally, I am not sure that I am exactly sold on his repeated leaning on the fact that "man is and remains ... a creature of options" (pg. 229) This is, for him, what it means "to be a person" (pg. 6). This raises questions about what to do with those who may lack cognitive abilities (even if you disregard cognitive impairments, my own son Leo at 4 months old hardly seems like a "creature of options" right now) and whether they still retain honor worthy of the image of God.

What was most tragic in this book about this definition of a person is that it seems to cause Hoekema to stray from statements like "the heart of the image of God must be love" (Pg. 22) to a climax that revolves around a discussion of freedom. This seems to place the image of God in our own agency as creatures rather than fleshing out his originally Christological vision -- one would have loved to see him discuss statements of Christ like "he can do only what he sees his Father doing" (Jn. 5:19) and how that may work with being a "creature of options", but we unfortunately don't get those kind of discussions.

Yes, a Christian does believe that he is free of all people, but this freedom should culminate in a service of love (Gal. 5:13). Hoekema, to his credit does say this (pg. 242), but it feels like this path of "options" and "freedom" does not lead us down the best path for understanding the image of God since eschatologically he affirms that there will be a time where we will not even be able to sin (pg. 243) and we will rightly praise God for that! If this is true, my impression is that a reduction of my ability to choose good from evil and only choose the good would render me less of a "person." I don't think Hoekema believes that all, but because he does not flesh these ideas fully out I left with these kinds of knots still present upon my first reading of this book.

I have been better served by others who have written about the image of God and press into the somatic realities of our life that are revealed in verses like 1 Cor. 6:13, which says "The body is not meant for sexual immorality, but for the Lord, and the Lord for the body." This can, and does I think, map on well with discussions around how the revelation of gender and being male and female also displays the image of God (Gen. 1:27). That would be fruitful discussion to have played out more in this book.

While I continue to try and cultivate my own understand of the doctrine of the image of God, I am grateful for a primer like this, but I have found other writers (like JPII and Augustine) more helpful at orienting the image of God as less about "options" and more about covenant communion both with God and with our neighbors, whether that be within the church, within marriages, within friendships and neighborhoods, or other locations.

Thanks for coming to my Ted Talk.

[Landon Coleman · Rating 5 out of 5]

In preparing to teach a multi-week men's class on biblical anthropology, this was a tremendously helpful book. Hoekema writes with great clarity, and his presentation is solidly reformed. His discussions on the historicity of the early chapters of Genesis were meandering at points, but the final destination was sound. Likewise, his rejection of both "trichotomy" and "dichotomy" was eventually followed by a re-worded acceptance of dichotomy (psychosomatic unity). All in all, a helpful book for understanding the Bible's teaching on humanity!

[Flynn Evans · Rating 4 out of 5]

A clarifying treatment of theological anthropology from a distinctively Dutch Reformed perspective. Hoekema weaves together historical and theological insights in tandem with biblical exegesis to give a cogent survey of the issues at hand, making it a great work for those interested in the subject to explore.

[Rachel Winkler · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was a really helpful work on Christian anthropology, addressing from a Reformed perspective what it means to be made in God’s image, sin and how it has corrupted that image, the person as a whole (both soul and body equally and inseparably), and what true freedom is for the human person.

There were minor points here and there that I thought could have been articulated better/more clearly, particularly where Hoekema attempted to tie in the Trinity and Christ’s humanity to the discussion. Some of his statements on this didn’t seem totally classically orthodox, or at least not very carefully worded.

Overall, though, this was a great introduction to the doctrine of man. I enjoyed reading it and am thankful to Hoekema for writing it!

[Jeremy Mueller · Rating 4 out of 5]

A proper theological anthropology is severely consequential in today's day and age. Alas, it has been important since the beginning of time! Hoekema's skillful writing on the subject helped solidify this fact in my mind. He methodically works through biblical data to clarify the Bible's teaching on mankind. I hope more pastors and Christians read this book. After all, I think a proper understanding of man as one who is made in God's image and consisting of both physical body and spiritual soul will remedy the world's perversion of man and oppression of fellow man. A proper theological anthropology makes racism unconscionable and abortion unexplainable. A proper theological anthropology means Christians will care for the souls of sinners who face the wrath of God and for the bodies of humans who have physical needs. You get the point...the implications are far-reaching. Read this book.

[Anna Chviedaruk · Rating 5 out of 5]

Мне очень понравилась эта книга. Её просто читать, в отличие от многих других богословский книг. Она даёт отличное библейское исследование этой темы, а не просто человеческие домыслы. А там, где автор не находит библейского объяснения, он так и пишет: про это мы до конца не знаем.
Эта книга помогла мне ответить на давние вопросы, поскольку она рассматривает библейскую антропологию в комплексе и с совершенно разных, но необходимых сторон.

[German Perez · Rating 5 out of 5]

Had to read this book for a class I signed up for. But honestly, it’s a VERY good book for people interested in Christian theology. I wasn’t sure if I would enjoy it - not because of the content but because of the delivery of it - and it exceeded my expectations. Personally, I loved it & encourage any other Christian to read it. If you like learning about church history and theology, and you like thinking through the why’s about everything, then you should pick this up!

[Matt Kottman · Rating 4 out of 5]

Hoekema's work on us being created persons was really insightful. I have read a lot on the imago dei over the years and this volume didn't disappoint. He added depth and breadth to my insight on humanity. His work is thorough and he manages the difficult task of taking complex theological arguments and making them accessible.

[Stephen Bedard · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a very good but older work on the image of God from a Reformed perspective. It also contains a lengthy and detailed treatment of the nature of sin and how that affects the imago Dei. It concludes with a short look at eschatology and the destiny of those in Christ. An important resource for anyone interested in the image of God.

[Amanda Bittner · Rating 5 out of 5]

So good! Absolutely loved this and learned so much. Hoekema is fantastic and clearly walked through what is the image of God, how did the fall affect it, how does salvation restore it, and more! So biblical and clear!

[Jacob Fulkerson · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent in every way. Biblically, theologically, and historically. Everyone knows the image of God is important, but not everyone can even articulate what it is. Hoekema is a faithful guide, and I will return to this book every time I teach on the subject.

[Michael Beck · Rating 5 out of 5]

Still the best book on the doctrine of man and sin. Highly recommended.

[David English · Rating 4 out of 5]

Hoekema is a great perspective from the Dutch reformed tradition. A man of his time, he does, however, present thoughtful and original ideas on the doctrine of man and sin. A worthwhile read.

[Chase Dunn · Rating 5 out of 5]

Enjoyed reading this thoroughly treatment of the image of God concept in Scripture. It cleared up the false conception of a difference between “likeness” and “image” proposed by Calvin and others. Much more than a basic treatment. Recommend for anyone who wants a thorough treatment of this concept along with an analysis of multiple views on various subtopics posed by a variety of Christian thinkers. I definitely enjoy being presented with multiple views via honest analysis and discerning critiques. 5 stars easy!

[Nancy Ruth Cummings · Rating 5 out of 5]

Such and amazing and intriguing read!

[Maryeet · Rating 5 out of 5]

SO GOOD

[Thiago Martinello · Rating 5 out of 5]

Uma excelente obra sobre Antropologia Bíblica, na qual Hoekema faz sua análise teológica e também mostra as diferentes posições de diversos teólogos ao longo da história.

[Braley Chambers · Rating 5 out of 5]

Having now finished Hoekema’s trilogy, I really think this series is one of the most helpful things I have ever read. Academically rigorous yet simultaneously devotional and readable.

[Cole Michaels · Rating 4 out of 5]

I did not read Chapters 7-10 so my rating of the book may change.

I found his very of Psalm 8:5 in which he translates “elohim” as God instead of angels to be unconvincing given how explicit Hebrews 2:5-9 is that it is angels in view. Yet, although this book is not perfect it was helpful and insightful and something I would recommend to others.

[Jacob Aitken · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a more basic text on the nature of man and sin than Berkouwer's works. It doesn't have the awe or hard-hittingness of Berkowuer, but it is much more accessible and more exegetical than Berkouwer's.

Hoekema gives a decent historical survey, though very incomplete. He accurately reads the theologians in question, with a particularly good section on Barth. He fails to point out, however, how Origenistic Barth's reading of the Fall is, but no matter.

Hoekema follows the typical “Man in Fourfold State.” Image as Original, Perverted, Renewed, and Perfected.” The image of God is not something man has but something man is (95).

His best sections are the ones dealing with "Sin." Sin has its source in the heart. Instead of speaking of “the will” and sin, we should see the will as “the total person in the act of making decisions” (171). “We never exercise an isolated will; what we call willing always involves other aspects of the self, like intellect and emotion.” Here he follows Dooyeweerd and the best of the Amsterdam Tradition.

He then proceeds with the standard treatments of trichotomism and dichotomism. The Bible uses the terms soul, spirit, and heart more or less interchangeably.

1. Problems with trichotomy:
a. It does violence to the unity of man.
1.a.1 Presupposes an antithesis between soul and body. The Greeks sought a mediating power between physical and material substances (usually the soul).
1.b. The distinction between spirit/soul doesn’t work in the Bible. body/soul = body/spirit (cf. Mt. 10.28 and 1 Cor. 7:34).
1.b.1 Grief is referred to both soul and spirit (1 Sm. 1:10; John 12:27)
1.b.2 Salvation is associated with both soul and spirit (Jm. 1:21)
1.b.3 Dying is described as a departure of either soul or spirit (Gen. 35:18; 1 Kgs. 17.21)

2. Dichotomism. It is certainly a more respectable position and has a venerated pedigree, yet there are problems.
2.a We should certainly reject dichotomism in its Platonic context, which often hold the soul is “higher” than the body.
2.b. Man cannot be “cut” (diche temnein) into two, but rather is a totality.

Hoekema has a particularly fine section on Human Freedom. He notes how most difficulties in viewing human freedom presuppose some form of "faculty psychology" (the will almost seems to operate independently of mind, intellect, and body). This created difficulties in the Reformed world as to whether prioritize will or intellect (cf Muller for all of the problems and non-solutions on this point). The problem, while it still remains, is lessened when we reject faculty psychology and move to a more "heart-unity" complex.

His practical applications on treating man as a whole man are interesting, if underdeveloped. I don't know if Hoekema suggests exploring "wholistic medicines" (224). I don't necessarily disagree, yet without huge restraint and discipline, this can easily become Christians' visiting New Age hippies.

He indirectly refutes the more extreme nouthetic counseling traditions by noting that depression can sometimes have physical causes rather than "your just in sin!!!!!" Of course, we don't want to say depression is "purely" a physical issue (the standard secular view today) or simply a result of sin (the more extreme nouthetic view), but rather note that depression can be seen in a complex of physical, situational, and sometimes spiritual causes (note, spiritual does not necessarily equal sinful_.

Criticisms:

Hoekema reads Berkouwer as endorsing Schilder’s interpretation that fallen man does not have God's image. I am not so sure Berkouwer is doing that. It seems that GCB is noting why Schilder said what he did (i.e., that is, the OT never speaks of man in the abstract but man in relation to God), though GCB notes problems with Schilder’s view.

[Andrés Vera · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a great book that deals with various aspects of biblical anthropology. Hoekema establishes the basic tenants of a Christian understanding of man - created in the image of God, fallen and corrupted by sin, operating as a free and whole person. His historical survey on the image of God is a little dry, but once you make it past that, the rest of the book is a great resource for understanding the various aspects of theology that deal with how we were created, who we are by nature, how we are affected by sin, and who we were ultimately created to be.

[Stephen · Rating 4 out of 5]

Reformed theologian Anthony Hoekema successfully defends the theological anthropology of neocalvinism (also known as the Dutch Reformed tradition). He argues that man is a "psychosomatic unity" of body and soul, in contrast to the body/soul dualism brought to the Church from classical ("pagan") philosophy. His discussion on man as the image of God is top-notch, and he integrates the concept into classic neocalvinist biblical theology.

For those looking for a philosophical defense of the body/soul psychosomatic unity, you should look elsewhere.

[Omar · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent theological treatment of the image of God in mankind. Chapter 5 alone is worth the price of the book. His treatment of sin is thoughtful and helpful. I picked this book up to help me with a sermon I was preparing and I ended up reading the whole thing.

[Nicholas Lewis · Rating 5 out of 5]

Hoekema’s systematic theology on hamartiology and anthropology is extremely deep and profound while also providing some balanced perspective on he nature of free will and predestination.

[Spencer R]

Solid, but not scintillating. A good chapter on the sin nature, along with how we are the image of God.

[Jaden A · Rating 5 out of 5]

Created in God’s image is truly a superb book. I look forward to reading Hoekema’s ‘ The Bible and the Future.’

Hoekema’s book is broken into twelve chapters:

1. The Importance of the Doctrine of Man
2. Man as a Created Person
3. The Image of God: Biblical Survey
4. The Image of god: Historical Survey
5. The Image of God: A Theological Summary
6. The Question of the Self-Image
7. The Origin of Sin
8. The Spread of Sin
9. The Nature of Sin
10. The Restraint of Sin
11. The Whole Person
12. The Question of Freedom

Hoekema (correctly in my opinion) embraces both a substantial/structural in addition to functional view of the image of God. Function is grounded in the structural. In other words, the Imago Dei is found both in what man is and what man does.

Three chief ways in which we mirror God’s image includes our dominion over the earth, that we are social beings, and that we are persons. The image is tarnished but not lost through the fall (contra Luther). See Gen. 9:6 and James 3:9. Since Christ is ‘the radiance of the glory of God and the exact imprint of his nature’ (Heb. 1:3) we know that structurally the image of God reflected in us must be love.

Historically, it was maintained by Greek philosophers that reason is what sets man apart from animals. One thinks of Aristotle’s saying that man is a ‘rational animal.’ This tradition was carried on by Irenaeus and medieval scholastics including Aquinas. Hoekema does not outright reject that our being rational persons reflects our being made in the image of God, but he admonishes that we should not absolutize this aspect. It is not, in Hoekema’s words, man’s intellectual nature that is the ‘primary’ or ‘exclusive’ sense of what man is.

The theologian to whom we owe the most concerning teaching of the Imago Dei is John Calvin. Although, Calvin rejected man’s dominion over the earth as part of our being created in God’s image, which is ultimately incorrect. See Gen 1:26.

Gen. 9:6 and James 3:9 lend themselves to scripture teaching that fallen man is created in God’s image (broad sense) but that regenerate man mirrors the image of God in the narrow sense, which includes a restoration of ‘knowledge, righteousness, and holiness’ (p. 71). Hoekema states, ‘In sum, from looking at Jesus Christ, the perfect image of God, we learn that the proper functioning of the image includes being directed toward God, being directed toward the neighbor, and ruling over nature’ (p. 75).

There are other interesting features in this book including a discussion of literary genre of Genesis 1 - 3 in addition to other interesting features. Overall, a great read.

[Dane Rich · Rating 2 out of 5]

This book is more of a 2.5 stars. Hoekema has great insight into a number of theological matters, but the fact that he cites no one but theologians and has minimal communication with anyone outside his evangelical tradition makes this work a failure in anthropology. His lack of understanding of the ancient near eastern context causes him to completely miss the kingship motif within the image of God language. Because of this he never quite hits the nail on the head. His biblical discussion on the image of God is his shortest chapter on that subject, the historical and theological chapters taking more time, which calls into question how intrinsically biblical it is. None of his examples of theologians hold to a perspective on image bearers = king representatives which is a major oversight.

Overall, I thought Hoekema had very good and enlightening thoughts throughout, specifically in his discussion on the renewed image and the self image. But this work was very flawed in its limited scope and lack of historical/anthropological references and isn’t very useful in the current anthropological discussion.

[Mitchell Traver · Rating 4 out of 5]

Solid, and at times, really insightful book on the Imago Dei written from a Confessionally Reformed perspective. There were moments when I differed with Hoekema or felt he made unnecessary distinctions (example would be rejecting a dichotomous/body-soul description of man, while proceeding to articulate the same under a new term). I also found it striking, not necessarily in a positive or negative sense, that the ability to make choices played such a foundational role in Hoekema’s explication of the Image of God. A potential weakness of the book would be the limited scope it offers, functioning more as an intra-Reformed conversation rather than a catholic Christian dialogue. This aspect was fine by me, but there’s much that has and could be said about the Imago Dei which wasn’t engaged here.

There were a number of moments when Anthony’s piercing insight showed itself on display, and those moments in particular made me grateful as a reader getting to listen and learn from a wiser and more seasoned Christian like Anthony Hoekema. (What comes to mind most especially is the Neo-Calvinist emphases played out in discussing Common Grace, Ethics, and Eschatology!)

Really good book.