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South India Under the Cholas
The Cholas dominated the south Indian political scene from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. This book is an authoritative and comprehensive study of Chola state, society and economy.
South India under the Cholas explores the state-society interactions in earl medieval south India. It presents an in-depth analysis of Tamil epigraphy. Using inscriptional evidence from India and South-east Asia, it analyses the socio-economic milieu, merchant guild, and other sociological aspects.
Subbarayalu discusses the revenue system, property rights, relations between landowners, cultivators, and slaves and the structure and character of the Chola state. He scrutinises in detail the evolution of organisations like Ūrār, Nāttār, and Periyanāttār, social classes like the left and right hand divisions and the merchant militia. For the first time an attempt is made here to quantify the revenue of a pre-Mughal Indian state.
Based on a wealth of primary sources examined over a period of thirty years, this book will be indispensable to scholars, researchers and student of south India and early medieval history.
South India under the Cholas explores the state-society interactions in earl medieval south India. It presents an in-depth analysis of Tamil epigraphy. Using inscriptional evidence from India and South-east Asia, it analyses the socio-economic milieu, merchant guild, and other sociological aspects.
Subbarayalu discusses the revenue system, property rights, relations between landowners, cultivators, and slaves and the structure and character of the Chola state. He scrutinises in detail the evolution of organisations like Ūrār, Nāttār, and Periyanāttār, social classes like the left and right hand divisions and the merchant militia. For the first time an attempt is made here to quantify the revenue of a pre-Mughal Indian state.
Based on a wealth of primary sources examined over a period of thirty years, this book will be indispensable to scholars, researchers and student of south India and early medieval history.
- GenresHistoryNonfictionIndia
274 pages, Hardcover
First published December 2, 2011
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About the author
Y. Subbarayalu
4 books4 followersProf. Y. Subbarayalu, head of the Indology Department at the IFP, has been awarded, by The Asiatic Society for his contribution in Early Indian History
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July 13, 2021
Book: South India under the Cholas
Author: Y. Subbarayalu
Publisher: Oxford University Press (2 December 2011)
Language: English
Hardcover: 272 pages
Item Weight: 480 g
Dimensions: 22.1 x 14.48 x 2.79 cm
Price: 554/-
The Chola Empire (300 BC–AD 1279) was a remarkable exemption to India’s disdaining overseas entanglements. It was the only Indian empire that sought not only trade ties with other civilizations but a political presence beyond India’s geographical boundaries.
The Cholas were a grand power to be reckoned with in ancient India is borne out by the fact that they are mentioned as an autonomous Kingdom in the edicts of Asoka.
The traditional Chola country lay between rivers Pennar and Vellar and comprised of modern Madras along with certain adjoining area now forming a part of the Karnataka state.
In the 2nd century B.C. a Chola Prince Elara, conquered Ceylon and ruled there for long period. Countless fables have grown there about his sky-scraping sense of justice as a King. Another important king among early Cholas was Krikala (190 AD.), who defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras and was a benevolent king. He promoted the repossession of forest land and constructed numerous irrigation tanks.
During these succeeding centuries, the Chola power declined owing to the rise of the Pallavas and the aggression of the Pandyas and the Cheras. For five hundred years, Cholas went into obscurity. Hiuen Tsang who visited southern India found the Chola country "deserted and wild succession of marshes and jungles.”It was only in ninth century that the Chola power was restored on the shambles of the Pallavas and was then continued for about four hundred years.
This particular volume deals with the diverse facets of state-society interfaces under the Cholas, while simultaneously discussing the character of the state, revenue coordination, local governance bodies, land rights, in conjunction with commerce, merchant guilds, and maritime traffic.
The book, carved up in two parts, Epigraphy and History has been divided into the following 17 chapters:
1. Tamil Epigraphy: Past and Present
2. The Social and Economic Milieu of the Pulangurichi Inscriptions
3. The Merchant Guild Inscription at Barus in Sumatra
4. Sociological Aspects of the Personal Names and Titles
5. Interpreting Inscriptional Terminology
6. Land under Chola Rule: Measurement, Classification, and Assessment
7. An Overview of the Chola Revenue System
8. Quantifying Land Revenue of the Chola State
9. Sale Deeds and Property Rights
10. Urar, Nattar, and Periyanattar
11. Alunganam and Mulaparushai: Two Early Village Bodies
12. Landholders, Cultivators, and Slaves
13. Social Change and the Right and Left Hand Divisions
14. Anjuvannam: A Maritime Trade Guild of Medieval Times
15. Erivira-pattinam, Warriors, and the State
16. The Chola State
17. Characterizing the Chola State.
The first 12 chapters construe the inscriptional terminology and shed light on the socio-economic environment, merchant guilds, and other sociological characteristics. The next 5 chapters mark out the advancement of the medieval state, economy, and society and also harp upon land surveys, Chola tax system, sale deeds, and property rights.
The Cholas’ willing militarism and activist external policy enabled this South Indian dynasty to last from the third century BC to the thirteenth century AD.
Originally the Cholas only extended their political and cultural sway into present-day Sri Lanka. In doing so they followed the path of other south Indian dynasties like the Pandyas (6th century BC to 12th century AD) and the Pallavas (3rd to 9th century AD), who saw the island just south of India’s coast as a natural extension of India rather than as imperial expansion. During the 11th century AD, however, the Cholas invaded the Sri Vijaya Empire in present-day Indonesia, breaking from the tradition of isolationism and acting as an activist great power in south-East Asia.
The author delves exhaustively into the fact that the Cholas were heritable monarchs. It was habitual that the eldest son succeeded to the throne but this rule was sometimes customized and the younger princes were appointed as Yuvaraja by the king. It is positive that the princes partook in administration as well as undertook military campaigns to help the king. The power of the monarch was unconditional. He gave orders but the issues were well examined by the ministers heading various departments, before the instructions of the king were obtained. There was thus a large set of officials grouped into various grades. These officials were organized into two grades, one upper 'Perundanam' and the lower 'Sirudanam'. There were no rules of recruitment nor were the salaries fixed. The public offices were mostly hereditary and enjoyed land titles.
For administrative convenience, the Empire was divided into eight provinces- 'mandalams'. Each province was sub-divided into various divisions and districts 'valandus' and 'nadus'. The various villages were grouped into and placed under a sub division called 'Kurram'. The lowest unit of administration was village.
The local administration was carried on by a series of popular assemblies both in the villages and towns. The village assemblies were known by two designations, the 'Ur' and 'Sabha' (or Mahasabha). The 'Ur' was a general gathering of the entire adult population of a village. The 'Sabha' or 'Mahasabha' was the assembly of Brahman villagers. The powers of these assemblies were quite extensive. They collected taxes and owned all the village lands. They managed all the affairs of a village like maintenance of roads, tanks and irrigation projects and looked to the welfare of the people. They settled petty disputes and were also entrusted the responsibility of detecting crimes and punishing the criminals.
To look after in detail the current problems of administration, the assemblies appointed a number of committees for various departments. The membership of these committees required high qualifications in respect of age, learning, experience and integrity.
Historians disagree on the reasons for Chola expansion into South-East Asia and the extent of their subsequent political influence in that region. For some, the reason was the simple desire to control trade routes while others discern aspirations for political control similar to those of imperialist nations.
According to some historians, the Chola invasion was simply a one-off military raid as they did not have the capacity to control a region so far away from their heartland; their naval prowess was insufficient for long-term overseas colonization.
Others assert that the Cholas left a viceroy in Java, creating longer-lasting political influence. Disagreement among historians about the circumstances notwithstanding, the fact of an Indian empire extending its political influence outside of the subcontinent demonstrated the willingness of some Indian rulers – and their advisers – to expand India’s sphere of influence as early as the eleventh century.
The last three chapters are replete with politico-social tidbits.
The exceptionally strong naval and land forces of the Cholas are spoken of. Not only the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel were controlled by them but even the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake. The naval contingent of the Cholas led a number of expeditions to distant lands and won laurels there. Their army consisted of elephants, cavalry and infantry. It is estimated that the strength of the elephant corps was 60,000 and that of the whole army about 150,000.
A well-built and well-administered country was bound to bring opulence to the people and increase the foreign trade. There was vigorous commercial transaction of goods with China, Java, Sumatra and Arabia. The affluence at home paved the way for construction of beautiful temples and palaces. Their architectural designs and the sculptural carvings therein are excellent. The author admits all the same that Chola art is a continuation of the Pallava times and shows modest inventiveness.
Though not meant for the lay reader, as reading between the lines would only be better suited for a prepared mind, this book brings you to the centrestage of a dynasty which managed to last four centuries and unified the whole of Southern India. It speaks to you of a dynasty which gave Southern India a strong and efficient government.
Their administration combined spirited central control with a good deal of local autonomy. Art and literature flourished, trade became brisk and the common people led a happy life.
Author: Y. Subbarayalu
Publisher: Oxford University Press (2 December 2011)
Language: English
Hardcover: 272 pages
Item Weight: 480 g
Dimensions: 22.1 x 14.48 x 2.79 cm
Price: 554/-
The Chola Empire (300 BC–AD 1279) was a remarkable exemption to India’s disdaining overseas entanglements. It was the only Indian empire that sought not only trade ties with other civilizations but a political presence beyond India’s geographical boundaries.
The Cholas were a grand power to be reckoned with in ancient India is borne out by the fact that they are mentioned as an autonomous Kingdom in the edicts of Asoka.
The traditional Chola country lay between rivers Pennar and Vellar and comprised of modern Madras along with certain adjoining area now forming a part of the Karnataka state.
In the 2nd century B.C. a Chola Prince Elara, conquered Ceylon and ruled there for long period. Countless fables have grown there about his sky-scraping sense of justice as a King. Another important king among early Cholas was Krikala (190 AD.), who defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras and was a benevolent king. He promoted the repossession of forest land and constructed numerous irrigation tanks.
During these succeeding centuries, the Chola power declined owing to the rise of the Pallavas and the aggression of the Pandyas and the Cheras. For five hundred years, Cholas went into obscurity. Hiuen Tsang who visited southern India found the Chola country "deserted and wild succession of marshes and jungles.”It was only in ninth century that the Chola power was restored on the shambles of the Pallavas and was then continued for about four hundred years.
This particular volume deals with the diverse facets of state-society interfaces under the Cholas, while simultaneously discussing the character of the state, revenue coordination, local governance bodies, land rights, in conjunction with commerce, merchant guilds, and maritime traffic.
The book, carved up in two parts, Epigraphy and History has been divided into the following 17 chapters:
1. Tamil Epigraphy: Past and Present
2. The Social and Economic Milieu of the Pulangurichi Inscriptions
3. The Merchant Guild Inscription at Barus in Sumatra
4. Sociological Aspects of the Personal Names and Titles
5. Interpreting Inscriptional Terminology
6. Land under Chola Rule: Measurement, Classification, and Assessment
7. An Overview of the Chola Revenue System
8. Quantifying Land Revenue of the Chola State
9. Sale Deeds and Property Rights
10. Urar, Nattar, and Periyanattar
11. Alunganam and Mulaparushai: Two Early Village Bodies
12. Landholders, Cultivators, and Slaves
13. Social Change and the Right and Left Hand Divisions
14. Anjuvannam: A Maritime Trade Guild of Medieval Times
15. Erivira-pattinam, Warriors, and the State
16. The Chola State
17. Characterizing the Chola State.
The first 12 chapters construe the inscriptional terminology and shed light on the socio-economic environment, merchant guilds, and other sociological characteristics. The next 5 chapters mark out the advancement of the medieval state, economy, and society and also harp upon land surveys, Chola tax system, sale deeds, and property rights.
The Cholas’ willing militarism and activist external policy enabled this South Indian dynasty to last from the third century BC to the thirteenth century AD.
Originally the Cholas only extended their political and cultural sway into present-day Sri Lanka. In doing so they followed the path of other south Indian dynasties like the Pandyas (6th century BC to 12th century AD) and the Pallavas (3rd to 9th century AD), who saw the island just south of India’s coast as a natural extension of India rather than as imperial expansion. During the 11th century AD, however, the Cholas invaded the Sri Vijaya Empire in present-day Indonesia, breaking from the tradition of isolationism and acting as an activist great power in south-East Asia.
The author delves exhaustively into the fact that the Cholas were heritable monarchs. It was habitual that the eldest son succeeded to the throne but this rule was sometimes customized and the younger princes were appointed as Yuvaraja by the king. It is positive that the princes partook in administration as well as undertook military campaigns to help the king. The power of the monarch was unconditional. He gave orders but the issues were well examined by the ministers heading various departments, before the instructions of the king were obtained. There was thus a large set of officials grouped into various grades. These officials were organized into two grades, one upper 'Perundanam' and the lower 'Sirudanam'. There were no rules of recruitment nor were the salaries fixed. The public offices were mostly hereditary and enjoyed land titles.
For administrative convenience, the Empire was divided into eight provinces- 'mandalams'. Each province was sub-divided into various divisions and districts 'valandus' and 'nadus'. The various villages were grouped into and placed under a sub division called 'Kurram'. The lowest unit of administration was village.
The local administration was carried on by a series of popular assemblies both in the villages and towns. The village assemblies were known by two designations, the 'Ur' and 'Sabha' (or Mahasabha). The 'Ur' was a general gathering of the entire adult population of a village. The 'Sabha' or 'Mahasabha' was the assembly of Brahman villagers. The powers of these assemblies were quite extensive. They collected taxes and owned all the village lands. They managed all the affairs of a village like maintenance of roads, tanks and irrigation projects and looked to the welfare of the people. They settled petty disputes and were also entrusted the responsibility of detecting crimes and punishing the criminals.
To look after in detail the current problems of administration, the assemblies appointed a number of committees for various departments. The membership of these committees required high qualifications in respect of age, learning, experience and integrity.
Historians disagree on the reasons for Chola expansion into South-East Asia and the extent of their subsequent political influence in that region. For some, the reason was the simple desire to control trade routes while others discern aspirations for political control similar to those of imperialist nations.
According to some historians, the Chola invasion was simply a one-off military raid as they did not have the capacity to control a region so far away from their heartland; their naval prowess was insufficient for long-term overseas colonization.
Others assert that the Cholas left a viceroy in Java, creating longer-lasting political influence. Disagreement among historians about the circumstances notwithstanding, the fact of an Indian empire extending its political influence outside of the subcontinent demonstrated the willingness of some Indian rulers – and their advisers – to expand India’s sphere of influence as early as the eleventh century.
The last three chapters are replete with politico-social tidbits.
The exceptionally strong naval and land forces of the Cholas are spoken of. Not only the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel were controlled by them but even the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake. The naval contingent of the Cholas led a number of expeditions to distant lands and won laurels there. Their army consisted of elephants, cavalry and infantry. It is estimated that the strength of the elephant corps was 60,000 and that of the whole army about 150,000.
A well-built and well-administered country was bound to bring opulence to the people and increase the foreign trade. There was vigorous commercial transaction of goods with China, Java, Sumatra and Arabia. The affluence at home paved the way for construction of beautiful temples and palaces. Their architectural designs and the sculptural carvings therein are excellent. The author admits all the same that Chola art is a continuation of the Pallava times and shows modest inventiveness.
Though not meant for the lay reader, as reading between the lines would only be better suited for a prepared mind, this book brings you to the centrestage of a dynasty which managed to last four centuries and unified the whole of Southern India. It speaks to you of a dynasty which gave Southern India a strong and efficient government.
Their administration combined spirited central control with a good deal of local autonomy. Art and literature flourished, trade became brisk and the common people led a happy life.
September 20, 2013
A well written book which details about inscriptions that were found, the Chola state, its revenue and taxation system, its agriculture and army. The one issue I had was that only in the last 1/4th part of the book I found it interesting to read. The first 3/4th had lot of details about inscriptions etc which I found to be a bit too detailed and plain. Nevertheless this book details a lot about the great Empire and is very informative and detailed.
Displaying 1 - 2 of 2 reviews