Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France

by Brett Rushforth

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, French colonists and their Native allies participated in a slave trade that spanned half of North America, carrying thousands of Native Americans into bondage in the Great Lakes, Canada, and the Caribbean. In "Bonds of Alliance," Brett Rushforth reveals the dynamics of this system from its origins to the end of French colonial rule. Balancing a vast geographic and chronological scope with careful attention to the lives of enslaved individuals, this book gives voice to those who lived through the ordeal of slavery and, along the way, shaped French and Native societies.
Rather than telling a simple story of colonial domination and Native victimization, Rushforth argues that Indian slavery in New France emerged at the nexus of two very different forms of slavery: one indigenous to North America and the other rooted in the Atlantic world. The alliances that bound French and Natives together forced a century-long negotiation over the nature of slavery and its place in early American society. Neither fully Indian nor entirely French, slavery in New France drew upon and transformed indigenous and Atlantic cultures in complex and surprising ways.
Based on thousands of French and Algonquian-language manuscripts archived in Canada, France, the United States and the Caribbean, "Bonds of Alliance" bridges the divide between continental and Atlantic approaches to early American history. By discovering unexpected connections between distant peoples and places, Rushforth sheds new light on a wide range of subjects, including intercultural diplomacy, colonial law, gender and sexuality, and the history of race.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Native American History, Grad School, Indigenous, American, Academic

424 pages, Hardcover

First published February 1, 2008

Reviews

[John · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a must for anyone interested in the history of New France, especially those who have read White's "The Middle Ground." Rushforth doesn't overturn White exactly, but he makes a very compelling case that White's interpretation of French-Indian relations is flawed because he didn't take Indian enslavement into account. This was sort of mind-blowing for me...I feel like I was pretty well informed about the history of New France, and I knew absolutely nothing about Indian slavery. Rushforth points out that a system of slavery grew up in French settlements that was sort of in dialogue with the rest of Atlantic slavery, but was also quite distinct. French settlers received Indian slaves from the Indians with whom they were allied - typically these were people captured in raids. The Indian groups worked to control their alliance with the French, and check French expansion, by trading these slaves. Essentially, if France's allies didn't want the French to form an alliance with the Fox or the Sioux, they would make sure to sell or just give captives from those tribes to Frenchmen. They knew the French would take the slaves, because there was a demand for them. But then the presence of the slaves made a peace deal impossible, because you can't be allied with a group while also enslaving them. You've already tacitly accepted that they are enemies, and worthy of enslavement. Therefore the French can't expand into Sioux country, and must remain where they are, trading with the allies who sold them the Sioux slaves.
Rushforth also uncovers all sorts of fascinating stories, including one instance where dozens of Iroquois slaves were sent to the Mediterranean to serve as galley slaves against the Turks (crazy!) and lots of instances where Indian slaves were shipped from Quebec to the Caribbean to be sold in French sugar islands. There was this whole slavery connection between Canada and the Caribbean, which everyone has forgotten about because France lost Canada to the British. My only complaint here is that the book is a hair too long. Rushforth maybe includes a few too many examples...I know it isn't as long as Middle Ground, but I still think he could have shaved off 40-50 pages. Still, though. Really fascinating stuff.

[Dasha · Rating 4 out of 5]

In Bonds of Alliance Rushforth outlines the contours of Indian slavery in the French colonial area of the Pays d’en Haut. The first chapter covers Indigenous practices and the cultural context surrounding slavery, reconstructed from observations made by European captives, archeological evidence, and linguistic studies. Rushford conveys that Indigenous practices of slavery differed from the slavery of the Atlantic slave trade because Indigenous practices, while rooted in the language of domestication, did not focus on surplus commodity production and slaves’ children remaining enslaved was uncommon. This is not to say that the slavery was not harsh, Rushforth notes that captors killed many slaves, mostly men, and female slaves were subjected to the coercion of husbands and other wives. The second chapter sees Rushforth establish the legal tradition and the evolving views of slavery within Europe broadly but more specifically in France. In contrast to Indigenous peoples in North America, France formulated a sharp distinction between slavery and enslavement which allowed them to continue the slave trade in their Caribbean colonies while maintaining that “There are no slaves in France” (p. 74). The third chapter returns to New France where colonial officials attempted to recreate the system of slavery used in the Caribbean. The enacted law targeted “the Panis nation,” which functioned as “a counterpart to the African kingdoms of Nigritie: a distant population nation…” (p. 169). Colonial officials used this poorly-defined label to define various Indigenous groups as acceptable slaves. Yet, as chapter four shows, slavery in the Pays d’en Haut failed to replicate the system in the Caribbean. The Fox Wars demonstrate the complex series of alliances that formed the basis for slavery in the Pays d’en Haut and how this system of slavery and alliances allowed Indigenous peoples to limit French alliances and expansion (p. 251). Chapter five focuses on the experiences of Indigenous women traded in slavery, their roles in the domestic service, and the fictive kinship networks some of them formed. The final chapter looks to the specific experiences of certain slaves and their masters, such as Jacob, a Fox-slave.
Through these carefully constructed chapters, Rushforth demonstrates his argument that the form of slavery practiced under French colonial rule in the Pays d’en Haut combined influences from France’s legal traditions, Afro- and Indian slavery in the Caribbean, and, importantly, Indigenous slavery practiced before and during the French colonial period. When totalled altogether, these factors created a regionally-specific slavery and culture.
I think it would have been beneficial to see Rushforth engage more with secondary literature that is relevant to the study of slavery, particularly Indian slavery, in New France and Canada. This engagement would allow readers to understand where this book positions itself in comparison to previous studies.

[Ian Gere · Rating 5 out of 5]

If this wasn’t required for my history course I most likely would have never picked it up, but I’m glad I did. Rushforth’s synthesis of the differences between Native versus French ideas of slavery greatly expands our understanding of how slave societies operated in the Atlantic world.

[Alexander Skezas · Rating 5 out of 5]

Probably the most fascinating book I’ve read in a while. Rushforth digs up so much information on the French and Native American’s alliance in terms of slavery with his book, Bonds of Alliance. Taking a chronological approach, Rushforth discusses the history of New France, laying down the historical context of both sides, noting several aspects of their systems in terms of master/slave relations, gender, economics and conflict that occurred. One of my favorite parts of the book that Rushforth discusses is when he describes the differences between the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Native American Slave Trade, noting that they both have different ways in commodifying slaves. I recommend reading this book for those who wish to learn the relations between the French and Native Americans in New France. It is chock full of information and sources that Rushforth scoured for to discuss.

[Jack · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book was fantastic! Rushforth covered the topic of American Indian slavery – a topic rarely discussed – in such a comprehensive and engaging fashion. Rushforth’s comprehensive approach to this work began began with a discussion on the ways in which individual Native American Nations utilized slaves prior to European encounters, the confounding and hypocritic French stance on slavery in France and its colonies, the French involvement in the system of African slavery, and how the French transformed American Indian slavery in New France. At times, due to Rushforth’s thorough research, this book can tend to drag, but strictly in the sense that Rushforth is providing the reader with multiple scenarios of a similar incident.

[Rayan Ramirez · Rating 5 out of 5]

Out of all the book I had been assigned to read in my college career this was one of my favorites. Rushforth places narratives of Native America slavery alongside Atlantic Slave Trade narratives and compares the two through primary sources. Moreover, he takes an approach of explaining Native American bondage from the point of view of Europeans or early colonists. Additionally, he provides the context for Native American bondage through a cultural lens. I think that it is a kind of necessity, in terms of examining slavery in the Americas, to understand slavery in the realm of Native Americans. I saw this piece by Rushforth as an Anthropologic examination between indigenous slavery and that pushed by Europeans on Africans.

[Madeleine · Rating 4 out of 5]

Brett Rushforth in this books attempts to connect a missing slave trade and relations in United States history of slavery. The attempts to bind Indigenous forces and French forces in New France and the slave societies each had and exposes the various similarities between the two. This is demonstrated from the various artifacts that are pictured, alongside drawings, and various primary sources. Where Rushforth is successful in this is there is clear extensive research that supports the arguments. It is an essential book that should be read for anyone interested in the Slave Trade and the French Slave Trade and the Empire.

[Jordan D · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book is an insightful look in to aspects of control within the realm of slavery. Rushforth breaks from the regular narrative of slavery to look at both Indigenous and Atlantic slave systems. This broadens the readers idea of what native life and relations looked like in congruence with the colonizers and the Atlantic slave system. The addition of the physical means of control which were infringed on the enslaved in both systems aids in the readers comprehension of what slavery looked like during this place and time. Overall, it is a wonderful and interesting read that is perfect for anyone who is looking to know more about early America and slavery.

[RLC]

This is an interesting, and at certain points,very graphic read. It reveals a history of slavery that many people have never been taught or have overlooked. The book focuses on the territory of New France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and details the alliance had between Native American groups, specifically the Algonquin, and Europeans slavers. It also highlights the similarities and differences between the European enslavement of Native Americans and Africans and Native American enslavement of Native Americans. One of the most fascinating parts of the book is the way that Rushforth is able to incorporate images into the narrative. Rushforth employs a variety of visual sources such as maps, drawings, and instruments of control and torture to demonstrate the ways in which indigenous and Atlantic slaveries intermingled in New France.

[Tara Wilson]

The overall topic of Indigenous slavery in New France and the relationship of the Indigenous people and the French is engaging. Rushforth displays extensive research throughout his book, including analysis on certain Indigenous languages to illustrate their perspective on enslavement and the process of beastalization. Much of Rushforth’s other research naturally relies on European sources. Moreover, the book illustrates the easy comparisons between Indigenous enslavement of other Indigenous groups versus European enslavement of both Indigenous People and Africans. Throughout the book there presents the common trend of intercultural diplomacy and new culture, but Rushforth exhibits this (in a less popular approach) of a chronological and geographical scope.

[NicoleKat · Rating 4 out of 5]

Rushforth's concentration on enslaved Indigenous people in New France is the missing piece of history that we never knew was missing. The interesting expectations and structure of slavery in New France pose historiographical questions of race and economic expectations in the American colonies. That being said, with Rushforth writing for several purposes and with vivid descriptions, it can be easy to get lost in writing at times. Despite this one criticism, it is always a gift to read about a history that is typically breezed over. I definitely recommend pairing this reading with a book on plantation slavery to compare.

[Elisabeth · Rating 4 out of 5]

A detailed book that gives a great explanation of slavery in New France. It may be a bit difficult to understand if you have no background in the topic. I might read it a second time to better understand it. But Rushforth shows off his research skills by pulling from a lot of sources, creating a good picture of a unique slavery system. It would have been nice to see some more Native American sources used but that is a limitation of the area of study. Overall, it was very informative, if a little bit confusing.

[Simon · Rating 4 out of 5]

Rushforth has succeeded in a number of areas where other scholars have come up short in Bonds of Alliance. To say nothing of his measured and well-thought-out use of French sources throughout his monograph, Rushforth’s use of indigenous primary sources solidifies his work as a must read in the field. Bonds of Alliance not only offers a thorough examination of the motivations and changes over time of enslavement in colonial French territories, but a stunning example of diligence in research and adherence to the integrity of historical analysis.

[Eliya · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book offers a perspective on French and Native American relations that most readers will be unfamiliar with. Rushforth aims to analyze the ways in which New France’s alliances with Native Americans were unequivocally related by their enslavement of native people. It is commendable that the book relays and analyzes the indigenous slave system that was already in place before the French arrived, and then connects that system of slavery to the alliance between French and native societies. Overall, this book felt a bit long-winded at times but is interesting and well researched.

[John McElligott · Rating 5 out of 5]

In this book, Rushforth portrays a little-known subject absolutely brilliantly. Rushforth uses the Sioux as an example of Indigenous slavery in New France and demonstrates a different kind of slavery. Rushforth does an excellent job of showing key differences between Indigenous and African slaves and shows their key differences. Rushforth also uses an abundance of visual aids which add an excellent feature to the book. I would highly recommend this book to anyone who is interested in history.

[Erik Riker-Coleman · Rating 4 out of 5]

Highly recommended. Sometimes the detail can be overwhelming, but this book is a tour de force, exploring the collision between the systems of enslavement practiced by Great Lakes Native peoples and those of the French. I need to rewrite some of my Minnesota History lectures.

[Jean-François Lisée · Rating 5 out of 5]

Un livre absolument fascinant sur l'histoire de l'esclavage autochtone en Nouvelle-France. Une recherche colossale, un talent de conteur à l'avenant.
Seul scandale: aucune traduction française n'est disponible ou en chantier.

[Amanda Bondie]

Great narration on audible. Loved the suspense and dialogue

[Laura · Rating 4 out of 5]

Super long and lots of details and very repetitive, but overall very cool and I learnt a lot

[Baileigh Moquin · Rating 2 out of 5]

I was assigned to read Bonds of Alliance for a history class and can confidently say that this was not my favorite read from the selection. The author takes a chronological approach to this book when I believe a thematic approach could have been more encompassing and engaging for the reader. I felt as if the author was dumping a lot of information instead of shining a light on key aspects. If you are interested in the French-Indigenous interactions then give this book a shot. However, maybe skip if you are just a history fan looking for a good read. Rushforth does show that they completed extensive research on these interactions between the French and the Natives however the sources are almost completely French and the Indigenous sources are limited.

[Andee Nero · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is important and written well enough. It should be read alongside White's Middle Ground and Duval's Native Ground. Some parts were mind-blowing. The section on Native American slavery completely makes me rethink a lot of other books I've read. I think the chronological approaches to French-Indian interactions in the Pays D'en Haut are maybe not the best. I find that these kind of meander and seemingly drag on forever. A thematic approach could be better, but I'm not entirely sure that is possible. Rushforth kind of does this by looking at interactions on a tribe-by-tribe basis.

[Molly · Rating 2 out of 5]

An interesting topic bogged down by poor writing, organization, and editing. Popular history fans might want to skip this one, but if you're particularly interested in Native American history in the Great Lakes region, give it a shot. But be forewarned--I've heard from a few people that the author may have misused or misinterpreted certain primary sources. Be sure to read with a critical eye.

[Eric Pecile · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent narrative of the unique dimensions of the slave trade in New France. The thorough method of the book astutely highlights the adaptive nature of empire to various circumstances and accounts for how human civilizations do in fact practice similar behaviors that take on unique meanings in various contexts.

[Samuel Brown · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fantastic academic treatment of slavery in New France. Illuminates a complex and poorly understood aspect of the European colonization of North America and the Caribbean. NB: slavery is horrifying and brutal, and this book does not hide that fact.

[Mike Emett · Rating 3 out of 5]

Required reading for the "Early American History to 1787" graduate seminar.