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Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization
Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
Thomas Allsen is one of the foremost historians of the Mongol empire. His latest book breaks new scholarly boundaries in its exploration of cultural and scientific exchanges between Iran and China. Contrary to popular belief, Mongol rulers were intensely interested in the culture of their sedentary subjects. Under their auspices, various commodities, ideologies and technologies were disseminated across Eurasia. The result was a lively exchange of scientists, scholars and ritual specialists between East and West. The book is broad-ranging and erudite and promises to become a classic in the field.
264 pages, Paperback
First published September 5, 1997
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October 4, 2015Be warned this book is very dry, mainly of interest to someone who already knows a fair amount about the Mongols. It basically takes an in depth look at the the exchange of goods, ideas and people between Yuan China and the Ilkhanate (based in Iran), two states ruled by Mongol dynasties descended from Genghis Khan. It's fantastically detailed, or horrifically detailed depending on perspective, and provides an unparalleled examination of exactly what was and wasn't transferred by the Mongols, the agency by which things were transferred and how much influence these new ideas, goods, etc, had.
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June 7, 2017Thomas Allsen’s Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, despite the implication of the title, explores only the cultural exchange between the Mongol courts of China and Iran. The author makes it clear that the two courts enjoyed a lengthy and close relationship throughout the history of the Mongol Empire, and to this he attributes the common political interests of the Yuan and Il-qan courts as opposed to the Golden Horde and the Chaghadaid segments. This relationship begins with the pacification of the region under Mongke in 1251, in where he sent Hulegu to accomplish this goal, but Hulegu used the military opportunity to wrestle control of the region from the line of the Jochi, the Golden Horde, to that of the Toluid, a relatively new line to contend with in Mongol politics (pp. 53-54). This put Hulegu in the position to support the pretentions of Qubilai in China, creating the beginning of a cooperative relationship between the two courts. Allsen uses this point in history to illustrate the evidence of the two courts’ relationship. He contends it was Mongol imperialism itself that facilitated cultural exchange, and not just as a consequence of the imperial project, but the purpose of “why” the exchanges occurred.
The book is divided into five parts in way that builds up to the conclusion. Part I deals with background information and Eurasia before the advent of the Mongol Empire. Part II is where Allsen really begins to explore his thesis by tracing the origin of the relationship between China and Persia under Mongol rule, and how they develop more fully; this section is primarily historical in content and limits its analysis to explicating the development of the relationship between the two, despite the different the paths both took. Part III describes the two most important intermediary figures between Persia and China. Part IV details a long series of cultural influences between both Mongol entities, and the final part concludes the book by examining agency, and the role of the filtering effect of Mongol steppe culture. The organization leads one right into the conclusions in an orderly manner that is often lacking many monographs.
Allsen observes that the Mongol Empire had a state-bound culture, which did not merely facilitate exchange as a consequence of their dominance, but rather the diffusion of culture was inherent to the steppe culture from which the Mongol Empire was descended (p. 198). An advanced, sedentary society needs a heavy amount of specialization for a multitude of tasks in a complex organism, whereas the Mongols’ steppe life required few specializations (p. 198). The solution for them once they had conquered their sedentary enemies was to search out the talent they needed to best suit their needs for governance. However, this exploitation of talent and use was not only a practical venture, but was one that was connected to what it meant to be a Mongol in many ways. Particularly, this use of specified talent, as all things the Mongols conquered, was their “rightful” plunder (p. 199). It was the understanding that the societies they defeated were to be done with as the Mongols pleased and this was the “ideological” basis that motivated the Eurasian trade.
Obviously, reality was more complex than this, but this basis demonstrated how the “nomadic” mindset undergirded Mongol rule. For example, the author contrasts the project of Alexander the Great, who seemed to have sought to create a unified culture, with the Mongols, who, instead of profiting off of unity, were able to harness the disparate forces of the various cultures where the confrontation served the needs of the state (p. 199). More practically, this utilization of cultural assets for rule was most apparent in the that rule over China, wich was done through the use of peoples of various ethnic and religious backgrounds, even preferring those of a lower strata in society at times, and not simply trusting their conquered Chinese subjects (p. 7). This sort of approach even went west in application; in 1296, Temur Qaghan sent his military talent, Baiju, to the Muslim Mongol ruler in Persia, Ghazan. There, Baiju served as a valet and an adjutant to the campaign army well enough that it pleased both Ghazan and Temur; he was pleased enough that Temur awarded him “imperial favor” (p. 34). The most obvious “multicultural” instance is that of the use of multiple religions. The use of these various religious persons was a way for the Mongols to secure more divine favor as much as it was to serve to impress other peoples (pp. 200-201). In preindustrial times production of goods often had a more mystical, organic characteristic, as opposed to a more modern “mechanical” understanding, and what was more distant was often perceived to be more mysterious and powerful; therefore, when the Great Qaghan forged an empire of disparate goods and men from far off lands, it only served to augment his spiritual power and very real authoritative prestige (p. 201). Ahmad, ruler of Persia, under Qubilai Qaghan even investigated the suspicious election of the Nestorian Patriarch Yahbh-Allaha, despite himself being a Muslim (p. 26). This is a clear example of the Mongol policy of diversifying the basis of their legitimacy and ability to increase their power and prestige, even under Muslim ruler. In short, Allsen seems to be suggesting civilization was the Mongol “loot” itself, which was why they Mongols temporarily displaced the traditional structures in China and Persia allowing them to create a Eurasian network of cultural exchange (p. 200).
With such an important aspect in mind the author’s analysis of the cultural exchange between Persia and China highlights two sources in particular which are the most helpful in discerning the extent of exchange for Allsen. Bolad Aqa was a prolific figure in the Mongol Empire, serving multiple important roles in the Yuan and Il-qancourts. Bolad was an important figure in the imperial household, military, and government, so when he was sent to an embassy to Arghun Qan in the late 1280s, he was poised to be a very influential conduit of cultural exchange (pp. 71-72). One aspect that commands attention is Allsen’s use of Chinese and Persian sources to reveal his life. Bolad brought his experience to both the Chinese and Il-qan courts, where he was an important reformer. Allsen also details some linguistic influence that was likely received through Bolad on Persian court life (p. 78). One example of Bolad’s experience is when Ghazan sought to relieve the situation of many Mongols sold into slavery or destitute, Bolad raised a guard of ten thousand men to employ them, and in another case gave paper money, gold, and silver to the poor; both his military and imperial offices in China prepared him for such tasks. Rashid-Al-Din is the other important figure in Il-quan Persia, because with Bolad entering into court life the two crossed paths and Bolad came to be a vital source for Rashid. The influence that Bolad exercised is through Rashid’s history of the known world (p. 84). Rashid utilized many informants from China, Kashmir, Uighur, Mongolia, Tibet, and even Hebrew, Arab, and Frankish sources to augment his history. Bolad played a key role in diffusing information about China to Rashid (p. 84). Allsen’s cultural exchanges featured in more detail in Part IV are full of references to how Bolad assisted Rashid with knowledge of China, and what other areas that cultural exchange occurred, such as, food, agronomy, astronomy, medicine, and printing. Overall, the author makes it clear not only the significance of the two persons, but also the role they played in diffusion between China and Persia.
Ultimately what undergirded these exchanges was the view that Persia and China, and all of their sedentary accumulation, were the tribute of the tribe, and in this manner, acted as a medium of exchange, because Mongolian pastoral and tribal culture valued reciprocity and generosity as the rate of exchange (pp. 199, 210). In demonstrating this, Allsen has crafted a thorough study of Mongol China and Persia that takes advantage of sources in both Chinese and Persian. He takes these sources as well as host of secondary literature in order to synthesize a narrative that is both informative and insightful. One aspect of this book that enhances its effectiveness is that it is not Euro-centric. Often the book will refer to “West Asia”, Iran, or Persia for the western portions of Eurasia and the western edges of Chinese rule, and does not assume a European perspective, which aids the account. This approach puts the central role of the Mongolian Empire into the focused role it belongs. Allsen successfully demonstrates in his monograph that the nomadic practice of gift-giving and shared plunder ultimately defined the cultural exchange that the Mongols facilitated across the Eurasian continent.
The book is divided into five parts in way that builds up to the conclusion. Part I deals with background information and Eurasia before the advent of the Mongol Empire. Part II is where Allsen really begins to explore his thesis by tracing the origin of the relationship between China and Persia under Mongol rule, and how they develop more fully; this section is primarily historical in content and limits its analysis to explicating the development of the relationship between the two, despite the different the paths both took. Part III describes the two most important intermediary figures between Persia and China. Part IV details a long series of cultural influences between both Mongol entities, and the final part concludes the book by examining agency, and the role of the filtering effect of Mongol steppe culture. The organization leads one right into the conclusions in an orderly manner that is often lacking many monographs.
Allsen observes that the Mongol Empire had a state-bound culture, which did not merely facilitate exchange as a consequence of their dominance, but rather the diffusion of culture was inherent to the steppe culture from which the Mongol Empire was descended (p. 198). An advanced, sedentary society needs a heavy amount of specialization for a multitude of tasks in a complex organism, whereas the Mongols’ steppe life required few specializations (p. 198). The solution for them once they had conquered their sedentary enemies was to search out the talent they needed to best suit their needs for governance. However, this exploitation of talent and use was not only a practical venture, but was one that was connected to what it meant to be a Mongol in many ways. Particularly, this use of specified talent, as all things the Mongols conquered, was their “rightful” plunder (p. 199). It was the understanding that the societies they defeated were to be done with as the Mongols pleased and this was the “ideological” basis that motivated the Eurasian trade.
Obviously, reality was more complex than this, but this basis demonstrated how the “nomadic” mindset undergirded Mongol rule. For example, the author contrasts the project of Alexander the Great, who seemed to have sought to create a unified culture, with the Mongols, who, instead of profiting off of unity, were able to harness the disparate forces of the various cultures where the confrontation served the needs of the state (p. 199). More practically, this utilization of cultural assets for rule was most apparent in the that rule over China, wich was done through the use of peoples of various ethnic and religious backgrounds, even preferring those of a lower strata in society at times, and not simply trusting their conquered Chinese subjects (p. 7). This sort of approach even went west in application; in 1296, Temur Qaghan sent his military talent, Baiju, to the Muslim Mongol ruler in Persia, Ghazan. There, Baiju served as a valet and an adjutant to the campaign army well enough that it pleased both Ghazan and Temur; he was pleased enough that Temur awarded him “imperial favor” (p. 34). The most obvious “multicultural” instance is that of the use of multiple religions. The use of these various religious persons was a way for the Mongols to secure more divine favor as much as it was to serve to impress other peoples (pp. 200-201). In preindustrial times production of goods often had a more mystical, organic characteristic, as opposed to a more modern “mechanical” understanding, and what was more distant was often perceived to be more mysterious and powerful; therefore, when the Great Qaghan forged an empire of disparate goods and men from far off lands, it only served to augment his spiritual power and very real authoritative prestige (p. 201). Ahmad, ruler of Persia, under Qubilai Qaghan even investigated the suspicious election of the Nestorian Patriarch Yahbh-Allaha, despite himself being a Muslim (p. 26). This is a clear example of the Mongol policy of diversifying the basis of their legitimacy and ability to increase their power and prestige, even under Muslim ruler. In short, Allsen seems to be suggesting civilization was the Mongol “loot” itself, which was why they Mongols temporarily displaced the traditional structures in China and Persia allowing them to create a Eurasian network of cultural exchange (p. 200).
With such an important aspect in mind the author’s analysis of the cultural exchange between Persia and China highlights two sources in particular which are the most helpful in discerning the extent of exchange for Allsen. Bolad Aqa was a prolific figure in the Mongol Empire, serving multiple important roles in the Yuan and Il-qancourts. Bolad was an important figure in the imperial household, military, and government, so when he was sent to an embassy to Arghun Qan in the late 1280s, he was poised to be a very influential conduit of cultural exchange (pp. 71-72). One aspect that commands attention is Allsen’s use of Chinese and Persian sources to reveal his life. Bolad brought his experience to both the Chinese and Il-qan courts, where he was an important reformer. Allsen also details some linguistic influence that was likely received through Bolad on Persian court life (p. 78). One example of Bolad’s experience is when Ghazan sought to relieve the situation of many Mongols sold into slavery or destitute, Bolad raised a guard of ten thousand men to employ them, and in another case gave paper money, gold, and silver to the poor; both his military and imperial offices in China prepared him for such tasks. Rashid-Al-Din is the other important figure in Il-quan Persia, because with Bolad entering into court life the two crossed paths and Bolad came to be a vital source for Rashid. The influence that Bolad exercised is through Rashid’s history of the known world (p. 84). Rashid utilized many informants from China, Kashmir, Uighur, Mongolia, Tibet, and even Hebrew, Arab, and Frankish sources to augment his history. Bolad played a key role in diffusing information about China to Rashid (p. 84). Allsen’s cultural exchanges featured in more detail in Part IV are full of references to how Bolad assisted Rashid with knowledge of China, and what other areas that cultural exchange occurred, such as, food, agronomy, astronomy, medicine, and printing. Overall, the author makes it clear not only the significance of the two persons, but also the role they played in diffusion between China and Persia.
Ultimately what undergirded these exchanges was the view that Persia and China, and all of their sedentary accumulation, were the tribute of the tribe, and in this manner, acted as a medium of exchange, because Mongolian pastoral and tribal culture valued reciprocity and generosity as the rate of exchange (pp. 199, 210). In demonstrating this, Allsen has crafted a thorough study of Mongol China and Persia that takes advantage of sources in both Chinese and Persian. He takes these sources as well as host of secondary literature in order to synthesize a narrative that is both informative and insightful. One aspect of this book that enhances its effectiveness is that it is not Euro-centric. Often the book will refer to “West Asia”, Iran, or Persia for the western portions of Eurasia and the western edges of Chinese rule, and does not assume a European perspective, which aids the account. This approach puts the central role of the Mongolian Empire into the focused role it belongs. Allsen successfully demonstrates in his monograph that the nomadic practice of gift-giving and shared plunder ultimately defined the cultural exchange that the Mongols facilitated across the Eurasian continent.
February 26, 2025
Bloed, zweet, tranen, een heel deel overgeslagen want het GING niet meer!!!!!! Deze deadline heeft me jaren van mn leven gekost
April 28, 2011
Great book, a lot of usable information for both the historian and re-creator
December 23, 2011
His two books on culture - cross-culture - under the Mongols have changed the arena. We're wrestling in a different arena, since.
February 4, 2014
More Asia than Eurasia - but really, really great!
Displaying 1 - 6 of 6 reviews