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Bystander Society: Conformity and Complicity in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust
In this powerful and revelatory new work, historian Mary Fulbrook takes on one of the most fraught issues in modern the role of ordinary Germans in enabling the rise of Nazism and with it the exclusion, persecution, and then extermination of millions of people across Europe. The question often asked of the Nazi era―what and when did ordinary Germans know about the crimes being committed in their name?―is, Fulbrook argues, the wrong one. The real question is how they interpreted and acted―or failed to act―upon what they knew; and how, in the process, became complicit.
To address these issues, Fulbrook examines German society before and during the Nazi regime, exploring the social conditions that eventually facilitated mass murder. She explores the creation of a "bystander society," one in which the majority of Germans were either unable to act or developed growing indifference to the fate of those deemed "non-Aryan"―mainly Jews― and therefore outside the Volksgemeinschaft , or national community. Over the course of the 1930s, from Hitler's assumption of the German chancellorship, through the passage of the Nuremberg Laws, to the devastation of Kristallnacht, this "bystander society" became more entrenched. Ordinary Germans became passive about the fate of "non-Aryans" and, by turning away, contributed to their isolation from mainstream society. For many citizens of the Reich, conformity led progressively through growing complicity in everyday racism to more active involvement in genocide during World War Two. In other words, social changes under Nazi
rule shaped the perceptions and responses of German citizens, creating the conditions that made the Holocaust possible.
Based on an extraordinary archive of personal accounts, Bystander Society moves between the individual and the wider context, highlighting the significance of changing social and political circumstances over the course of the Nazi period by offering first-hand testimony both from those who were its primary victims, and those who initially sought to stay on the side lines but could not avoid being caught up in the violence of the times. These accounts illuminate how interpersonal relations in everyday life shifted, such that some fellow citizens could first be viewed as outcasts and then, in wartime, deported―most often to their deaths―in full view of those who would later often claim ignorance of their fates.
Chilling and illuminating, Bystander Society reconceives the whole notion of "bystanding" within Nazi Germany, offering an interpretation of the conditions for inaction, one with wide and enduring relevance.
To address these issues, Fulbrook examines German society before and during the Nazi regime, exploring the social conditions that eventually facilitated mass murder. She explores the creation of a "bystander society," one in which the majority of Germans were either unable to act or developed growing indifference to the fate of those deemed "non-Aryan"―mainly Jews― and therefore outside the Volksgemeinschaft , or national community. Over the course of the 1930s, from Hitler's assumption of the German chancellorship, through the passage of the Nuremberg Laws, to the devastation of Kristallnacht, this "bystander society" became more entrenched. Ordinary Germans became passive about the fate of "non-Aryans" and, by turning away, contributed to their isolation from mainstream society. For many citizens of the Reich, conformity led progressively through growing complicity in everyday racism to more active involvement in genocide during World War Two. In other words, social changes under Nazi
rule shaped the perceptions and responses of German citizens, creating the conditions that made the Holocaust possible.
Based on an extraordinary archive of personal accounts, Bystander Society moves between the individual and the wider context, highlighting the significance of changing social and political circumstances over the course of the Nazi period by offering first-hand testimony both from those who were its primary victims, and those who initially sought to stay on the side lines but could not avoid being caught up in the violence of the times. These accounts illuminate how interpersonal relations in everyday life shifted, such that some fellow citizens could first be viewed as outcasts and then, in wartime, deported―most often to their deaths―in full view of those who would later often claim ignorance of their fates.
Chilling and illuminating, Bystander Society reconceives the whole notion of "bystanding" within Nazi Germany, offering an interpretation of the conditions for inaction, one with wide and enduring relevance.
488 pages, Hardcover
Published November 1, 2023
About the author
Mary Fulbrook
42 books38 followers Mary Jean Alexandra Fulbrook (née Wilson) is a British academic, historian and author. Since 1995, she has been Professor of German History at University College London. She is a noted researcher in a wide range of fields, including religion and society in early modern Europe, the German dictatorships of the twentieth century, Europe after the Holocaust, and historiography and social theory.
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January 5, 2024In 1939 three Harvard professors – Gordon Allport, a psychologist; Sydney B. Fay, a historian; and Edward Y. Hartshorne, a sociologist – ran an essay competition with the title ‘My life in Germany before and after January 30, 1933’. With a first prize of $500 – a substantial sum at the time – the competition attracted more than 250 entries. They were written between late summer 1939 and spring 1940, more than two-thirds of them by émigrés to the US, and most in German. The majority were written by Jews but there were also some submitted by people whom the Nazis called ‘Mischlinge’ (‘mixed breed’) and some by ‘Aryans’, most of whom opposed the regime. On the basis of this trove of sources, Mary Fulbrook sets out to bring some nuance to the concept of the ‘bystander’ as it is usually applied to members of German society under the Nazi regime: people who were neither ‘perpetrators’ nor ‘victims’.
Fulbrook leaves the reader in no doubt as to her position: that the concept of the ‘bystander’ is helpful neither for understanding the ways in which people’s behaviour shifts over time, nor for ascertaining degrees of conformity, complicity and collaboration. Nazi Germany, she writes, ‘was not intrinsically a “perpetrator society”, but over time it became a society in which widespread conformity produced growing complicity in establishing the preconditions for genocide’. The result, she concludes, was a society in which ‘most people would either not want, or not dare, to intervene on behalf of victims, and in which most people learned to look away’.
In recent decades, a historiography that stressed the Nazi regime’s enforcement of terror has given way to the notion of a ‘consensus dictatorship’. In other words, the Nazi regime enjoyed considerable popular support even if it could not create the ‘people’s community’ (Volksgemeinschaft) of which the leading Nazis dreamed. Peter Fritzsche, for example, has written about the German people ‘racially grooming’ themselves, and scholars such as Robert Gellately and Thomas Kühne have argued that support for the Nazis rapidly outstripped the need for terror to back up the regime. Fulbrook rightly observes that this interpretive change echoes a generational shift: those who were young during the Third Reich (and who gave oral history interviews in the late 20th and early 21st centuries) were less likely to offer fear as a reason for their conformity.
Read the rest of the review at HistoryToday.com.
Dan Stone is Professor of Modern History at Royal Holloway, University of London.
Fulbrook leaves the reader in no doubt as to her position: that the concept of the ‘bystander’ is helpful neither for understanding the ways in which people’s behaviour shifts over time, nor for ascertaining degrees of conformity, complicity and collaboration. Nazi Germany, she writes, ‘was not intrinsically a “perpetrator society”, but over time it became a society in which widespread conformity produced growing complicity in establishing the preconditions for genocide’. The result, she concludes, was a society in which ‘most people would either not want, or not dare, to intervene on behalf of victims, and in which most people learned to look away’.
In recent decades, a historiography that stressed the Nazi regime’s enforcement of terror has given way to the notion of a ‘consensus dictatorship’. In other words, the Nazi regime enjoyed considerable popular support even if it could not create the ‘people’s community’ (Volksgemeinschaft) of which the leading Nazis dreamed. Peter Fritzsche, for example, has written about the German people ‘racially grooming’ themselves, and scholars such as Robert Gellately and Thomas Kühne have argued that support for the Nazis rapidly outstripped the need for terror to back up the regime. Fulbrook rightly observes that this interpretive change echoes a generational shift: those who were young during the Third Reich (and who gave oral history interviews in the late 20th and early 21st centuries) were less likely to offer fear as a reason for their conformity.
Read the rest of the review at HistoryToday.com.
Dan Stone is Professor of Modern History at Royal Holloway, University of London.
November 7, 2023
A fascinating look into everyday German society from the perspective of people living in Germany during the rise to power of the Nazis and thru the end of the war. Based on personal essays, the author weaves these individual perspectives into a well-written book that follows the development and consolidation of Nazi racial laws and practices culminating in the holocaust. We are able to read first-hand, from a few true believers, those who slowly over time conformed - to various degrees - and those who were dramatically impacted by the Nurnberg Laws (including not only self-identified Jews but also spouses in mixed marriages, people who suddenly discovered Jewish grandparents and thus were considered Jewish according to Nazi law. (An interesting note, highly recommend watching the Ken Burns documentary on the US and the Holocaust: the Nazis in the writing of their racial laws were influenced by racial laws in the US South in determining white/black status and the various degrees of "blackness.") Beyond these personal essays lies the underlying theme - the bystander society. Who is a bystander? What does it mean to be a bystander? Given the highly polarized political situation in many Western democracies and the rise of authoritarianism in many countries, these are very relevant questions to be discussed.
May 12, 2025
"...it is vital to understand how rapidly social relations can change, institutions falter, elites capitulate. The 'lessons' of Nazi Germany are perhaps most acute, most relevant, when we explore how very small changes in everyday life that seem anodyne or justifyable at the time can have catastrophic consequences within a matter of just a few years."
In this powerful historical study, based on essays written by émigrés, Mary Fulbrook analyses the behaviour of the "muddled middle", i.e. ordinary Germans, during the Nazi regime. She shows how bystanders are socially produced under specific historical and political circumstances. What stood out to me was Fulbrook's compelling analysis of the function of gradual racial segregation (socially and spatially) in the creation of a bystander society in Nazi Germany.
Fulbrook highlights the systemic erosion of "feelings of common humanity" under Nazi rule. I shuddered while reading the unvarnished testimonies of perpetrators, "bystanders", and victims collected in this book. No matter how many books I read and how many museums I visit to learn about this period, the terror, the blunted attitudes, and the widespread indifference in the face of unfathomable violence still shake me to the core.
But the message here is not only about history. Indeed, Fulbrook's argument is uncomfortable and unsettling: "'Bystanders' are not individuals acting in isolation; people's choices of action or inaction are crucially shaped by their relationships with others, their aspirations for the future, and their perceptions of the circumstances in which they live." Studying this history, Fulbrook calls for higher alertness and deeper understanding of dynamics of bystanding in the present.
Besides the insightful engagement with illuminating archival materials, the contribution of this study is, in my view, that Fulbrook encourages further investigation into the broader social and political conditions that force people to be silent or look away in contexts of violence and injustice. As such, she stresses that Bystander Society is not merely a historical or academic discussion, but of immediate political importance.
Indeed, notwithstanding the specific historical context, many of the dynamics of dulling appear unsettlingly recognisable - for instance, the high-level official who was "working long hours that left little time for independent thought", the fear of personal and professional repercussions of speaking up, or the formal and informal distinctions made between those considered part of the German "Volksgemeinschaft" and those who were cast as 'others' (Jews, disabled people, communists, Sinti and Roma people, etc.). A combination of social conditioning and legal and political measures encouraged complicity, indifference and impotence, and eventually enabled genocide.
"This is not simply past history. Millions were mobilized in support of Nazism and later claimed they had 'kown nothing' about its consequences. That so many people, across Nazi-dominated Europe, were involved in making murder possible on such a massive scale is an unavoidable legacy of life under Nazi rule."
One myth that Fulbrook consistently and convincingly debunks is the argument of ignorance invoked by many Germans after the war. Looking away was and continues to be a choice.
In this powerful historical study, based on essays written by émigrés, Mary Fulbrook analyses the behaviour of the "muddled middle", i.e. ordinary Germans, during the Nazi regime. She shows how bystanders are socially produced under specific historical and political circumstances. What stood out to me was Fulbrook's compelling analysis of the function of gradual racial segregation (socially and spatially) in the creation of a bystander society in Nazi Germany.
Fulbrook highlights the systemic erosion of "feelings of common humanity" under Nazi rule. I shuddered while reading the unvarnished testimonies of perpetrators, "bystanders", and victims collected in this book. No matter how many books I read and how many museums I visit to learn about this period, the terror, the blunted attitudes, and the widespread indifference in the face of unfathomable violence still shake me to the core.
But the message here is not only about history. Indeed, Fulbrook's argument is uncomfortable and unsettling: "'Bystanders' are not individuals acting in isolation; people's choices of action or inaction are crucially shaped by their relationships with others, their aspirations for the future, and their perceptions of the circumstances in which they live." Studying this history, Fulbrook calls for higher alertness and deeper understanding of dynamics of bystanding in the present.
Besides the insightful engagement with illuminating archival materials, the contribution of this study is, in my view, that Fulbrook encourages further investigation into the broader social and political conditions that force people to be silent or look away in contexts of violence and injustice. As such, she stresses that Bystander Society is not merely a historical or academic discussion, but of immediate political importance.
Indeed, notwithstanding the specific historical context, many of the dynamics of dulling appear unsettlingly recognisable - for instance, the high-level official who was "working long hours that left little time for independent thought", the fear of personal and professional repercussions of speaking up, or the formal and informal distinctions made between those considered part of the German "Volksgemeinschaft" and those who were cast as 'others' (Jews, disabled people, communists, Sinti and Roma people, etc.). A combination of social conditioning and legal and political measures encouraged complicity, indifference and impotence, and eventually enabled genocide.
"This is not simply past history. Millions were mobilized in support of Nazism and later claimed they had 'kown nothing' about its consequences. That so many people, across Nazi-dominated Europe, were involved in making murder possible on such a massive scale is an unavoidable legacy of life under Nazi rule."
One myth that Fulbrook consistently and convincingly debunks is the argument of ignorance invoked by many Germans after the war. Looking away was and continues to be a choice.
July 30, 2025
Horrifying and enlightening. As the United States under Trump increasingly emulates Nazi Germany in the 1930s, this couldn't be a more timely read.
In Bystander Society, Mary Fulbrook continue analyzing the events leading up to the Holocaust and WWII in the same vein as those like Hannah Arendt did before. As an analysis primarily focusing on the leadup to those events, I found it reminiscent of Arendt's Origins of Totalitarianism. However, Fulbrook's contributions here I think are exceptionally important. Her focus is on the accounts of everyday Germans, Jews, and members of the countries on the Eastern Front. The goal was to observe how the attitudes and perspectives of these people shifted prior to Hitler's rise through the end of WWII. So many accounts of this period in other books focus on those in charge or events such as battles. We get so many stories in this regard of an epic battle between good and even that we fail to learn from the nuisance of the ordinary person. This opens a realm of parallels to what we're experiencing today, as we watch similar scenarios play out in real time. I'm sure each of us would like to think we'd not be bystanders. This history will really make you question that: Are we going to do better when it's our turn?
In Bystander Society, Mary Fulbrook continue analyzing the events leading up to the Holocaust and WWII in the same vein as those like Hannah Arendt did before. As an analysis primarily focusing on the leadup to those events, I found it reminiscent of Arendt's Origins of Totalitarianism. However, Fulbrook's contributions here I think are exceptionally important. Her focus is on the accounts of everyday Germans, Jews, and members of the countries on the Eastern Front. The goal was to observe how the attitudes and perspectives of these people shifted prior to Hitler's rise through the end of WWII. So many accounts of this period in other books focus on those in charge or events such as battles. We get so many stories in this regard of an epic battle between good and even that we fail to learn from the nuisance of the ordinary person. This opens a realm of parallels to what we're experiencing today, as we watch similar scenarios play out in real time. I'm sure each of us would like to think we'd not be bystanders. This history will really make you question that: Are we going to do better when it's our turn?
June 27, 2025
Riveting, disturbing, and wise. Dr. Fulbrook's addition to historiography is gargantuan; "Bystander Society" is a masterpiece of historical study infused with truly heartfelt compassion and understanding. German society in the Nazi period is so endlessly complex and so far from hegemonic, a fact which Fulbrook understands and explains patiently and completely. Almost every possible motivation for conformity, obedience, resistance, or passivity during the Nazi era is considered here, and the result is engrossing and enriching.
March 31, 2025
Exceptional work of history.
October 11, 2025
‘People who do not know what others in a group actually think often decide that it is safer to go along with what appear to be the dominant norms in order not to stand out.’
#DeZinVanHetBoek #TheEssenceOfTheBook
One of my most impressive museum experiences was at the Musée Memorial in Caen, Normandy. The permanent exhibition was designed in such a way that visitors walked down a spiral path from the ground floor past photo walls. The route began with photos and reports about the end of the First World War and the Versailles Treaty. Further down, towards the 1940s, there were images and texts about the rise of Nazism. The end of the downward spiral coincided with the beginning of the Second World War: sounds of bombing, lighting that simulated seas of fire. It was a chilling experience. This was not only because of the images and the information, but also because the flow of visitors was guided along that route - the only way out was to go down.
It was equally chilling to read the book The Bystander Society by Mary Fulbrook. It's an extremely interesting book, which lays many parallels between the years leading up to the Second World War and the present day.
Based on an analysis of essays, correspondence and diary entries written in the period leading up to World War II and throughout, Fulbrook states how German society was complicit in the Nazi doctrine. Ignorance, impotence and indifference on the part of citizens allowed for the most cruel atrocities to take place. From these firsthand accounts, Fulbrook describes how Nazi viewpoints and practices normalised in just a few years. Equally intriguing and appalling to read, and to be taken as a warning for our times: let's please these not go down that road again.
Dutch readers can find a full review on my blog
#DeZinVanHetBoek #TheEssenceOfTheBook
One of my most impressive museum experiences was at the Musée Memorial in Caen, Normandy. The permanent exhibition was designed in such a way that visitors walked down a spiral path from the ground floor past photo walls. The route began with photos and reports about the end of the First World War and the Versailles Treaty. Further down, towards the 1940s, there were images and texts about the rise of Nazism. The end of the downward spiral coincided with the beginning of the Second World War: sounds of bombing, lighting that simulated seas of fire. It was a chilling experience. This was not only because of the images and the information, but also because the flow of visitors was guided along that route - the only way out was to go down.
It was equally chilling to read the book The Bystander Society by Mary Fulbrook. It's an extremely interesting book, which lays many parallels between the years leading up to the Second World War and the present day.
Based on an analysis of essays, correspondence and diary entries written in the period leading up to World War II and throughout, Fulbrook states how German society was complicit in the Nazi doctrine. Ignorance, impotence and indifference on the part of citizens allowed for the most cruel atrocities to take place. From these firsthand accounts, Fulbrook describes how Nazi viewpoints and practices normalised in just a few years. Equally intriguing and appalling to read, and to be taken as a warning for our times: let's please these not go down that road again.
Dutch readers can find a full review on my blog
Displaying 1 - 7 of 7 reviews