Jump to ratings and reviews
Rate this book

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

Rate this book
In 1644, the Manchus, a relatively unknown people inhabiting China’s rude northeastern frontier, overthrew the Ming, Asia’s mightiest rulers, and established the Qing dynasty, which endured to 1912. From this event arises one of Chinese history’s great How did a barely literate alien people manage to remain in power for nearly 300 years over a highly cultured population that was vastly superior in number? This problem has fascinated scholars for almost a century, but until now no one has approached the question from the Manchu point of view. This book, the first in any language to be based mainly on Manchu documents, supplies a radically new perspective on the formative period of the modern Chinese nation. Drawing on recent critical notions of ethnicity, the author explores the evolution of the “Eight Banners,” a unique Manchu system of social and military organization that was instrumental in the conquest of the Ming. The author argues that as rulers of China the Manchu conquerors had to behave like Confucian monarchs, but that as a non-Han minority they faced other, more complex considerations as well. Their power derived not only from the acceptance of orthodox Chinese notions of legitimacy, but also, the author suggests, from Manchu “ethnic sovereignty,” which depended on the sustained coherence of the conquerors. When, in the early 1700s, this coherence was threatened by rapid acculturation and the prospective loss of Manchu distinctiveness, the Qing court, always insecure, desperately urged its minions to uphold the traditions of an idealized “Manchu Way.” However, the author shows that it was not this appeal but rather the articulation of a broader identity grounded in the realities of Eight Banner life that succeeded in preserving Manchu ethnicity, and the Qing dynasty along with it, into the twentieth century.

606 pages, Paperback

First published February 1, 2001

13 people are currently reading
365 people want to read

About the author

Mark C. Elliott

3 books4 followers
Mark C. Elliott is Professor of Chinese and Inner Asian History at Harvard University.

Ratings & Reviews

What do you think?
Rate this book

Friends & Following

Create a free account to discover what your friends think of this book!

Community Reviews

5 stars
33 (33%)
4 stars
49 (49%)
3 stars
11 (11%)
2 stars
5 (5%)
1 star
1 (1%)
Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews
Profile Image for Mary Catelli.
Author 55 books204 followers
April 14, 2020
A study of the practices of the Qing dynasty with regard to the Manchus, as conquerors, and the Han whom they ruled. Not that it was ever that simple. There were Mongols in the Eight Banners system all along, and Chinese bannermen were only briefly dispensed with. (Someone had to wrangle the artillery.)

A subject matter that includes the eight banners that Manchus (and some others) were classified and the larger but subordinate purely Han Green Standard, the importance of hunts, the strength of a bow that a soldier should be able to pull, the less formal communications between Manchu officials and emperors (sometimes with the emperor going so far as to refer to "us" -- shocking for a Chinese emperor), the walled garrisons where Manchu bannermen lived and which were, in theory, only temporary postings for people whose true home was Beijing (causing much conflict about where people should be buried for proper rites), and more
Profile Image for Andrés.
116 reviews
August 25, 2009
As with too many books by academics, this is actually a monograph that was needlessly extended by 200 pages. The main points of the author are that the Eight Banners were an integral identifier and institutional bulwark for defining the Manchus, that the definition of "Manchuness" changed over time, and that typical identifiers for ethnicity (such as a separate language, defined homeland, and distinct cultural practices) might not apply to the Manchus.

However, this book tends to the repetitive with the consequence that a hopeful start does not yield to substantial discoveries in subsequent pages. At the end, the reader is left with the distinct feeling that precious little additional light has been cast on the history of the Manchus during the Qing Dynasty. In addition, the extra pages reveal a wooden prose and a tendency to mistake opaque writing for insightful observations. For the best writing in the book, you should look through the notes at its end.

All of this is rather unfortunate as the history of the Manchus is an interesting topic in its own right, and the author's use of Manchu-language archival material must be lauded.
30 reviews
April 3, 2011
Who were the Manchu, and how did this obscure frontier tribe take control of and govern a country (from 1644-1912) with a population three hundred times their own? This is the first academic treatment written from the perspectice of the Manchu themselves, and the first work in English to draw extensively from Manchu-language original sources. Outstanding.
Profile Image for Tsai Wei-chieh.
Author 5 books108 followers
March 25, 2022
原文刊於《國立政治大學民族學報》第25期(2006年12月):第293-301頁。註釋已刪去。全文參見:http://www.academia.edu/202560/0002

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. By Mark C. Elliott. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2001. xxiii, 580pp.

滿洲人所建立的清朝是中國歷史上由非漢民族統治時間最長的一個朝代。然而,清朝皇帝如何以少數的征服民族之姿,遂行對廣大漢人的統治,卻又同時能維持滿洲民族自身的統治地位,一直是學術界所重視的問題。

一般認為,清朝的滿洲統治者之所以能鞏固在中國的統治,對漢文化的學習與採借是一個很重要的因素。然而這也使得清朝滿人是否漢化的問題成為學界爭論的焦點之一。過去主流的漢化學派(the Sinicization School)觀點,隨著近二十年來對滿文相關史料的整理與應用,逐漸受到新興阿爾泰學派(the Altaic School)的質疑。 在此一學術潮流的影響下,本書《滿洲之道:八旗制度與晚期帝制中國的族群認同》即從對滿人漢化觀點的質疑出發,探討清朝八旗制度與滿洲身分認同之間的關係。

八旗制度為清太祖努爾哈齊於17世紀初所創製的一種兵民合一、軍政一體的社會制度。旗是旗分的簡稱,滿語gūsa的漢譯。八旗制度初創時僅有八旗滿洲一部。到了清太宗皇太極統治時,隨著金國對察哈爾蒙古與遼東漢人的征服,又創建了八旗蒙古與八旗漢軍,奠立了日後八旗制度的規模。

本書除前言與結論外共分為三部分,計分八章。前言簡述了與滿洲相關的問題,第一部分「八旗社會的結構」共有三章,依序為「八旗與滿洲源流」、「滿城:猛虎在山」、「皇帝的奴才」;第二部分「旗人生活模式」共有三章‧依序為「旗人特權的鐵飯碗」、「與尼堪共處」、「寄居的異族」;第三部分「十八世紀的危機」共有二章,依序為「滿洲之道何處去?」、「維護八旗制度」。結論則探討滿洲認同與滿洲在中國的統治。

本書主要論點大致可歸納為以下三點:

1. 清朝統治中國的權威基礎有二:一為新儒家式的正當性(neo-Confucian legitimacy),二為族群主權(ethnic sovereignty)。 前者指的是清朝入關後,為了順利統治關內的漢地,因而崇儒重道,起用大批漢人官僚,以儒家聖主的形象統治漢人;後者則指清朝皇帝透過各種隔離與歧視的族群政策,使其能保持本民族的特殊性,而以少數的征服民族之姿,創建並維持一個大一統的多民族帝國。

2. 出於維護族群主權的考量,清朝皇帝給予滿洲人多項優惠與特殊待遇,並且設法使其與漢人隔離以保持其傳統的滿洲之道(其內容包括了滿語、騎射與儉樸忠誠等特質)。而清朝皇帝對於滿洲人的照顧以及滿洲人處於廣大漢人敵意包圍下的態勢,也增強了滿洲人的共同命運感。

3. 然而,隨著清朝對中國從暫時征服轉變為長久佔領,自18世紀初起,滿洲人受到漢人的涵化情況日漸嚴重,八旗駐防各地導致旗人與中央的聯繫日漸薄弱,同時八旗人丁的增長也成為清朝財政的沉重負擔。清朝的族群主權基礎出現了危機。因此清朝試圖解決這些問題。就前者而言,雖然清廷努力遏止滿洲人漸入漢習,但仍然無法扭轉此一情勢;但就後者而言,清廷透過將八旗制度科層化,以及改革八旗財政與戶口登記等措施,成功地使旗人得以重新附著於八旗制度上。而八旗制度得以維持,也使滿洲身分得以保存。清廷理想中以文化為基礎的規範性(normative)滿洲之道,至此亦逐漸被以旗人身分為基礎的履行性(performative)滿洲之道所取代。八旗制度與滿洲身分認同是糾結而密不可分的。

從前述中可以發現,Elliott著重討論兩個概念:一個是族群屬性(ethnicity);另一個則是八旗制度。而他的預設對話對象則是Pamela K. Crossley。

首先在族群屬性的討論上,Crossley在《透鏡:清帝國意識形態中的歷史與認同》一書中, 避免以族群屬性作為理解清朝治下不同文化團體的概念工具。她認為當時對這些人群的分類與歷史建構,事實上受到滿洲統治者的意識形態(ideology)所影響,與現代脈絡中的族群(意指被民族國家邊緣化的人群)不同,因此她另以帝國成員(constituency)來稱呼之。 Crossley並且認為旗人與被征服的漢人在文化上的區分,到了乾隆朝時改變為世系(genealogy)與種族(race)上的區分,同時以清高宗敕纂《八旗滿洲氏族通譜》與對八旗漢軍的祖源追溯為其佐證。 她認為一直要到清末太平天國之亂後,滿洲人才開始產生現代意義上的族群認同。

不同於Crossley的看法,Elliott認為以族群屬性來討論清代中國的滿洲人,除了有益於理解滿洲人真正自我認同的過程,使研究者更容易區分文化群體與族群的不同以外,還能讓我們在更廣闊的比較歷史脈絡下來檢視中國的族群。

其次,Elliott對於前述Crossley的修正主義觀點並不完全贊同,並且提出一種新傳統主義式的觀點。Crossley堅持認為滿洲人事實上從未被漢人真正的同化。而滿洲身分的性質則歷經了從文化、種族乃至族群的演變過程。然而Elliott則認為自17世紀初八旗制度建立以來,滿洲身分的本質事實上一直是族群性的。 Elliott承認滿洲人的確受到漢文化很大的影響,但是他認為某族群在文化實踐上的轉移並不必然表示該族群的自我感知或他者對該族群的理解也會有所轉移。

如果Elliott承認滿洲人與漢人之間的文化區別逐漸模糊,卻又不認為滿洲人就因此失去其族群認同,那麼構成滿洲族群認同的主要動因(agency)為何? 在這個問題上,Elliott提供了我們一個可能的答案,而這也是本書中的第二個重點:八旗制度。

Crossley指出清高宗對繼嗣(descent)與世系的強調是滿洲身分演化過程中的轉捩點。而Elliott自己對此現象則提出了另一種解讀。他認為此一轉向並非肇始於乾隆朝,而是之前的雍正朝(或甚至更早)。此外,Elliott認為雍正朝的八旗登記改革在滿洲身分的演化上代表一個轉捩點,並非因為滿洲身分首度與繼嗣相稱,而是因為滿洲身分與旗人資格更加緊密結合。因為清廷不再假定每個旗人在繼嗣上都屬於八旗。 也就是說對旗人血統的清查,目的在保持八旗內部的純淨。James Millward認為Elliott藉此倒置了漢化理論:即滿洲之道的危機並不在於滿洲人的漢化,而在於混入滿洲之漢人的滿洲化。 然而,筆者以為清朝皇帝的用意,實際上在於劃清滿漢之間的界線,而前述兩種情形都可能造成滿漢身分的混淆危機,這對其正當性建立於族群差異性之上的清朝來說是很不利的。

Crossley強調由上而下的帝國意識形態在滿洲身分之構成過程中的政治作用。對此,Elliott並不否認。但他也指出,若是缺乏文化、歷史與世系的正當性,這樣的政治建構是無法成功的。 Elliott將八旗制度與Pierre Bourdieu提出的習性(habitus)相結合,認為八旗制度產生了模式化的滿洲生活實踐與表徵。 八旗制度維持了滿洲族群身分存在所需的社會經濟基礎,而滿洲人對此一身分的認同又強化了八旗制度存在的必要性。也就是說,在滿洲身分認同的產生上,Crossley強調由上而下的帝國意識形態作用;而Elliott則強調由下而上的制度作用。

由前述可知,Elliott與Crossley之間對滿洲認同形成過程的一個爭議點,在於兩者對影響滿洲認同的歷史動因有不同解釋:帝國意識形態與制度何者較具有決定性?但是事實上,要判定何者為決定性的歷史動因是很困難的。八旗制度本身就是出於征服與文化考量的帝國意識形態產物,這與帝國本身的擴張有密切的關聯; 但是八旗制度的發展也不時脫離帝國意識形態的掌控,使得皇權不得不作出讓步。因此重點不在判定帝國意識形態與制度何者為決定性的歷史動因,而是要設法釐清兩者在滿洲認同形成中的互動過程。如果我們將清朝前期復興滿洲傳統文化的一系列政策視為人類學中的復興運動(revitalization movement), 而以Marshall Sahlins的人類學理論來加以解讀,也許有助釐清在滿洲認同形成過程中帝國意識形態與制度的互動過程。

在Elliott前揭書中,清朝皇帝所強調之代表滿洲傳統的文化符號,除了八旗制度外,還包括了滿語、騎射、純樸等技能與秉性。而這些並且被清朝皇帝強調是滿洲入關前的舊習。在技能上,滿洲人被要求必須勤習滿語,而學習漢語則成為次要;此外重視滿洲人固有的騎射長技,皇帝要求滿洲人在學習漢人的文藝之前,必須在騎射有所成就。在秉性上,皇帝要求滿洲人效法先祖的純樸風俗,不可學習漢人浮靡之風。在八旗制度上,由於旗人人口越來越多,清朝資源有限,為了貫徹首崇滿洲的國策,因此在待遇上八旗滿洲的優待未曾稍減,但是在文化與起源上與漢人相近之八旗漢軍的優遇卻遭到犧牲。此外,在氏族系譜上,著重於八旗滿洲在血緣繼嗣上的一貫性,並且將混有漢人血統的八旗滿洲視為是較不純正的滿洲人。根據前述可知,滿洲文化復興運動的目標,在於培養出國語嫻熟,騎射優長,生活簡樸,忠於皇帝,並且以身為征服民族後裔為傲的純正滿洲人,以成為皇帝統治漢人最忠心的臣僕。

傳統上,學界認為清朝皇帝復興滿洲文化的作法是擔心滿洲人被漢人所同化而失去統治的特權。 康雍乾三朝所推行一系列的滿洲文化復興運動,正表現了清朝皇帝對於滿洲文化的重視。但是為何政經特權的維持,需要透過文化的復興運動來達成?關於這個問題必須透過檢視清朝滿漢關係史,以及因此而產生的文化意義來討論。Marshall Sahlins主張文化分類會影響人們的日常實踐。 筆者認為清朝皇帝即受到滿漢文化分類的影響,而將滿洲人的政經特權與本民族文化的優越性相連結。在滿漢接觸的歷史中,滿漢之分主要是建立在身分與文化上的差異。入關前的滿洲文化對於清朝皇帝而言,是征服民族優勢的象徵。因此我們可以說清朝皇帝透過復興滿語、騎射與八旗制度等滿洲文化符號,以及排斥漢習的做法,來重申(或重塑)滿洲性(Manchuness), 藉此重新鞏固滿漢對立的二元意義結構,以及相應的「滿洲:漢人::統治:臣��」地位。從這裡我們可以了解帝國意識形態作為歷史動因,在滿洲認同形成過程中所發揮的作用。

然而帝國意識形態在形塑滿洲認同的過程中並非無往不利。即便滿洲文化復興運動行之有年,在清朝皇帝的上諭與御製詩文中,仍不時見到皇帝對於滿語教育成效不彰,以及旗人騎射廢弛的責難與嗟嘆。皇帝將此歸咎於該管官員苟且草率,未盡監督教導之責;以及滿人漸染漢習、忘卻滿洲之道之故。而隨著旗人人口增加,清廷財政不堪負荷,不得不削減對非正身旗人的待遇,並且聽任八旗漢軍出旗為民;而清廷唯恐八旗駐防兵丁忘其根本,漸染漢習,而以北京為旗人之原籍。但駐防旗人苦於遷徙之累,加以生計困難,至清高宗時不得不予以退讓,讓駐防八旗改以駐防地為原籍。從這裡我們可以見到,八旗制度發展對清廷所造成的沉重負擔;官僚制度敷衍塞責的弊病,以及該運動對下層旗人缺乏強制力等制度性因素,都限制了帝國意識形態在形塑滿洲認同中的作用。

最後,雖然清廷試圖以官方力量塑造滿洲人對滿洲舊習的認同以維持清朝統治的目標並未達成,但這些保存下來的滿洲傳統,包括語言、傳統、歷史、宗教與社會制度等元素,卻得以存在滿人的記憶中。後來在中共的民族識別下,這些記憶中的滿洲傳統則成為滿族身分的本質內涵。如果沒有帝國意識形態的發揚與制度的持久性影響,這些滿洲傳統文化可能會消失的更早更快,也就不會存在於滿族人的歷史記憶當中。因此,兩者對後世滿族認同的形成,同樣具有積極意義。

而Elliott與Crossley之間對滿洲認同形成的另一個爭議點,則在於兩者對於族群屬性的定義不同。人類學長久以來重視田野資料,因此在研究上受限於資料的時間縱深不足,而使其研究成果在運用到歷史研究時易於受限。在本書中,Elliott試圖將人類學中族群屬性的概念歷史化,使我們在定義族群屬性時不需與民族(nation)的現代性相牴觸。因此,Elliott使人類學的族群研究增加了歷史深度。此外,Elliott在本書中大量運用了未整理的滿文檔案。正如Elliott自言「每件新檔案都需要一種新歷史」, 透過不同於漢化觀點的新史觀,Elliott透過人類學視野來解讀新發掘的滿文檔案,建構出他所謂的「新清史」。R. Kent Guy將本書列為滿洲研究的「四書」之一,正是對本書作出重要貢獻的肯定。 如今在本書出版後五年,我們見到此一學術取向也得到學界的認同與延續。 作為新清史的先行者之一,本書實提示了歷史學與人類學未來可共同努力的一種方向。
Profile Image for Jessup Kim.
19 reviews
June 26, 2021
Good read and learned a lot about the Eight Banners, but got a bit repetitive and less interesting as the book went on.
Profile Image for Chyi.
175 reviews19 followers
August 3, 2023
杰作!不知某些大肆围剿欧立德的中国“学者”,是否也能写出这样的著作?
Profile Image for Isabelle Qian.
76 reviews
November 30, 2024
Worked on this for an editing gig. Ask me anything about the Manchus. JK I absorbed nothing.
Profile Image for Marissa.
73 reviews11 followers
February 7, 2016
In this book, Mark Elliot aims to address two weak points in the scholarly literature on Qing Dynasty China (1644-1912)--the under-utilization of a vast amount of documents in the Manchu language, and the cursory treatment of the Qing's most distinctive institution: the Eight Banners.

A system arising out of the Manchu conquest of China, the banners sought to organize the dynasty's military forces and preserve their elite status. Elliot describes this process in a thorough and detailed way, and many of the topics he discusses are frankly fascinating. For example, he enters the debate on whether a Qing occupation of Chinese cities was premeditated or ad hoc, thus immersing the reader in the creation of walled enclaves of hereditary soldiers and the complex social tensions that resulted. Readers will especially enjoy his quotes pulled from imperial correspondence between the Qing Emperor and his Manchu bannermen, which gives an intimate (and sometimes hilariously acerbic) view into the administration of the empire.

He also handles economic aspects of the Eight Banners system in a way which is both meaningful and accessible--casual readers can skim the tables on military expenditure, but specialists will appreciate the care he takes with estimates and his awareness of limitations in our sources.

The most distinguishing feature of Elliot's approach, however, is his insistence on ethnicity as the defining characteristic of Qing rule and the function of the Eight Banners. He develops a comparative concept of 'ethnic sovereignty' to explain why minority Manchu rule over a vast Han Chinese population took the shape it did, and examines how the Eight Banners served this aim. As an institution, it was supposed to uphold the major values of the 'Manchu Way,' such as archery, equestrian skills, and simple living. He argues that even when acculturation meant that most Manchus no longer adhered to these ideals, the institutional privileges and distinctive patterns of life in the banners preserved a sense of Manchu otherness, of ethnic difference, that is essential to understanding the Qing period.

Unlike other reviewers, I don't think this book was too long or repetitive, but I do wish that it's comparisons were less cursory and more diverse (the Norman conquest elite may have functioned similarly to the Qing, but surely the Mughal Empire did too, and is more comparable in wealth and scope?) But this is a small complaint, and I would recommend this book to anyone who wants to know more about the Qing, about Chinese empires in comparative perspective, or about how ethnicity can be investigated by historians outside the modern context.
Profile Image for Corry Lee.
Author 5 books37 followers
November 5, 2012
This book has a lot of quotes from period sources and is filled with excellent detail describing the lives of the Manchus in Qing China and their attempts (both successful and not) at retaining a separate ethnic identity and governing a country as a small, alien minority. Fascinating.

As an author interested in learning about other cultures, and as a person who rarely reads history texts, I found this both engaging and highly readable.
Profile Image for Carlisle.
79 reviews2 followers
August 31, 2021
This book is a defining work in a controversial area of Chinese history with major implications. Just so good.
Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews

Can't find what you're looking for?

Get help and learn more about the design.