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Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors
On the morning of 22 August 1485, in fields several miles from Bosworth, two armies faced each other, ready for battle. The might of Richard III's army was pitted against the inferior forces of the upstart pretender to the crown, Henry Tudor, a 28-year-old Welshman who had just arrived back on British soil after fourteen years in exile. Yet this was to be a fight to the death - only one man could survive; only one could claim the throne.
It would become one of the most legendary battles in English history: the only successful invasion since Hastings, it was the last time a king died on the battlefield. But BOSWORTH is much more than the account of the dramatic events of that fateful day in August. It is a tale of brutal feuds and deadly civil wars, and the remarkable rise of the Tudor family from obscure Welsh gentry to the throne of England - a story that began sixty years earlier with Owen Tudor's affair with Henry V's widow, Katherine of Valois.
Drawing on eyewitness reports, newly discovered manuscripts and the latest archaeological evidence, Chris Skidmore vividly recreates this battle-scarred world in an epic saga of treachery and ruthlessness, death and deception and the birth of the Tudor dynasty.
It would become one of the most legendary battles in English history: the only successful invasion since Hastings, it was the last time a king died on the battlefield. But BOSWORTH is much more than the account of the dramatic events of that fateful day in August. It is a tale of brutal feuds and deadly civil wars, and the remarkable rise of the Tudor family from obscure Welsh gentry to the throne of England - a story that began sixty years earlier with Owen Tudor's affair with Henry V's widow, Katherine of Valois.
Drawing on eyewitness reports, newly discovered manuscripts and the latest archaeological evidence, Chris Skidmore vividly recreates this battle-scarred world in an epic saga of treachery and ruthlessness, death and deception and the birth of the Tudor dynasty.
437 pages, Hardcover
First published May 13, 2013
74 people are currently reading
1554 people want to read
About the author
Chris Skidmore
14 books51 followersChris Skidmore was born in 1981. He was educated at Bristol Grammar School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he was a St Cyre's and Dixon Scholar and President of the Oxford University Historical Society. He graduated in 2002 with a double first and was awarded a Gibbs Prize. Chris conducted postgraduate research at Oxford, where he was a convenor of a graduate seminar on the Tudor nobility. He was an adviser and researcher to Bristol's bid for European Capital City of Culture 2008 and was research assistant to Robert Lacey for his Great Tales of English History series. Chris has also written for the Western Daily Press and People Magazine. Chris currently teaches Early Modern History part-time at Bristol University. He served as Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Kingswood from 2010 to 2024 and held several government ministerial posts between 2016 and 2020.
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February 16, 2014
If recent English history book shelves are solid indicators of trends, then it appears that the obsession with the Tudors has slipped backwards in time with a focus on how the Tudors came to gain the throne in the first place. Chris Skidmore joins this group of Tudor-background exploration in “The Rise of the Tudors: The Family That Changed English History”.
Having thoroughly enjoyed Skidmore’s book on Edward VI but not so much the book concerning Amy Robsart (sadly, because I love her); I was unaware of what to expect with “The Rise of the Tudors”. Fortunately, the reader is instantly smacked with an incredible tour de force of a book. Combining excellent writing skills (not that Skidmore was poor to begin with but he has grown exponentially), strong research, and evident passion for the topic (Skidmore recreated many life events and literally footed the same journeys as Henry Tudor in order to see through his eyes); “The Rise of the Tudors” is strong in every sense of the word.
“The Rise of the Tudors” feels alive and kicking with a strong heartbeat, exciting pace, and consistent storytelling. The text is not overly speculative and is instead objective without biases but yet flows like a narrative history allowing the reader to soak up facts without being either overwhelmed or bored. Skidmore’s writing is intelligent but easy-to-understand, resulting in compelling reading.
The biggest highlight of “The Rise of the Tudors” is the incredible wealth of information presented. Although I am very well versed on the Wars of the Roses, reign of Richard III, Elizabeth of York, etc; I still had some unanswered questions. Skidmore provides research and facts concerning background and angles which other books on the topic skim over. The enlightenment on this period of history is powerful with the reader enjoying many moments of clarity. Events made sense in a way they never have previously which in turn explains personalities and actions of future Tudors.
Furthermore, all of Skidmore’s storytelling has a rhyme and reason. There are moments in which it may seem he is going off on a tangent but there is a reason for every area explored and it all relates to the Tudors. Skidmore has the perfect ratio of mentioning these sideline areas but then bringing together the connection.
On the other hand, “The Rise of the Tudors” lacks annotated notes and strong sources which can question credibility. For instance, there are cases when Skidmore attempts to debunk writings of other historians but offers no sources and doesn’t elaborate. There are also a few (not many, but still existing) occasions in which Skidmore speculates on feelings and thoughts of historical figures.
Skidmore’s telling of the road to Bosworth is impressively a notable one as it is fresh, unique, and informative. Accompanied by maps showing the literal journey Henry’s troops took through each city to Bosworth; Skidmore provides an accurate play-by-play which truly sets the field (no pun intended) for the Battle of Bosworth. Along with rarely seen ‘letters of muster’ produced in full and details of defections; “The Rise of the Tudors” makes for one gripping and hearty book! Unfortunately, this strength weakens with the telling of the Battle of Bosworth. Although Skidmore’s depiction is illustrative and includes a map of the battlefield; he uses the same sources every couple of lines and constantly refers to a war-maneuver manual by Christine de Pazan claiming Richard and Henry must have consulted it. Not only is this an overreaching speculation but feels like filler material and is simply: annoying.
The concluding chapters of “The Rise of the Tudors” focuses on the aftermath of Bosworth concerning the personal ambitions/motives of those who fought in the battle, how it effected Henry VII’s early reign, the search for the actual battleground and battle relics, and a postscript on the discovery of Richard III’s skeleton. Skidmore is both entertaining with these chapters and also very knowledgeable. The book is supplemented with two full-color color plates with one focusing on Bosworth relics adding to a memorable piece. On a negative end, there are no end notes or annotations and the bibliography is cluttered.
Despite some complaints, “The Rise of the Tudors is undoubtedly Skidmore’s strongest work to date and is standout with its spunky look at the events leading to the Battle of Bosworth and the battle, itself. The work is more recommended for those with already-existing knowledge on the topic as the style is unique and the look at history is original compared to the ‘usual’ books. “The Rise of the Tudors” will reignite passion in those readers who perhaps have exhausted themselves regarding the topic. “The Rise of the Tudors” is not to be missed.
Having thoroughly enjoyed Skidmore’s book on Edward VI but not so much the book concerning Amy Robsart (sadly, because I love her); I was unaware of what to expect with “The Rise of the Tudors”. Fortunately, the reader is instantly smacked with an incredible tour de force of a book. Combining excellent writing skills (not that Skidmore was poor to begin with but he has grown exponentially), strong research, and evident passion for the topic (Skidmore recreated many life events and literally footed the same journeys as Henry Tudor in order to see through his eyes); “The Rise of the Tudors” is strong in every sense of the word.
“The Rise of the Tudors” feels alive and kicking with a strong heartbeat, exciting pace, and consistent storytelling. The text is not overly speculative and is instead objective without biases but yet flows like a narrative history allowing the reader to soak up facts without being either overwhelmed or bored. Skidmore’s writing is intelligent but easy-to-understand, resulting in compelling reading.
The biggest highlight of “The Rise of the Tudors” is the incredible wealth of information presented. Although I am very well versed on the Wars of the Roses, reign of Richard III, Elizabeth of York, etc; I still had some unanswered questions. Skidmore provides research and facts concerning background and angles which other books on the topic skim over. The enlightenment on this period of history is powerful with the reader enjoying many moments of clarity. Events made sense in a way they never have previously which in turn explains personalities and actions of future Tudors.
Furthermore, all of Skidmore’s storytelling has a rhyme and reason. There are moments in which it may seem he is going off on a tangent but there is a reason for every area explored and it all relates to the Tudors. Skidmore has the perfect ratio of mentioning these sideline areas but then bringing together the connection.
On the other hand, “The Rise of the Tudors” lacks annotated notes and strong sources which can question credibility. For instance, there are cases when Skidmore attempts to debunk writings of other historians but offers no sources and doesn’t elaborate. There are also a few (not many, but still existing) occasions in which Skidmore speculates on feelings and thoughts of historical figures.
Skidmore’s telling of the road to Bosworth is impressively a notable one as it is fresh, unique, and informative. Accompanied by maps showing the literal journey Henry’s troops took through each city to Bosworth; Skidmore provides an accurate play-by-play which truly sets the field (no pun intended) for the Battle of Bosworth. Along with rarely seen ‘letters of muster’ produced in full and details of defections; “The Rise of the Tudors” makes for one gripping and hearty book! Unfortunately, this strength weakens with the telling of the Battle of Bosworth. Although Skidmore’s depiction is illustrative and includes a map of the battlefield; he uses the same sources every couple of lines and constantly refers to a war-maneuver manual by Christine de Pazan claiming Richard and Henry must have consulted it. Not only is this an overreaching speculation but feels like filler material and is simply: annoying.
The concluding chapters of “The Rise of the Tudors” focuses on the aftermath of Bosworth concerning the personal ambitions/motives of those who fought in the battle, how it effected Henry VII’s early reign, the search for the actual battleground and battle relics, and a postscript on the discovery of Richard III’s skeleton. Skidmore is both entertaining with these chapters and also very knowledgeable. The book is supplemented with two full-color color plates with one focusing on Bosworth relics adding to a memorable piece. On a negative end, there are no end notes or annotations and the bibliography is cluttered.
Despite some complaints, “The Rise of the Tudors is undoubtedly Skidmore’s strongest work to date and is standout with its spunky look at the events leading to the Battle of Bosworth and the battle, itself. The work is more recommended for those with already-existing knowledge on the topic as the style is unique and the look at history is original compared to the ‘usual’ books. “The Rise of the Tudors” will reignite passion in those readers who perhaps have exhausted themselves regarding the topic. “The Rise of the Tudors” is not to be missed.
June 27, 2013
Although Richard III was five foot eight inches tall, his spine was so twisted he stood as short as four foot eight. Imagine him hacking his way towards Henry Tudor at the battle of Bosworth, a furious human pretzel, ‘small in body and feeble of limb’, a contemporary noted, he cut his way towards his rival, ‘until his last breath’.
Five million people in the UK watched the Channel Four programme The King Under the Car Park that first revealed Richard really did have slight bones, and one shoulder higher than another, as the earliest sources had always claimed. It caught the national imagination with the details of the injuries Richard suffered at Bosworth bringing the violence of the battle to life. Chris Skidmore’s ‘Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors’ could scarcely have been published at a better moment, and it is just the right book for all those whose interest has been piqued by the archaeology.
For admirers of Richard III, including all those who were convinced that tales of Richard’s twisted spine was Tudor propaganda, there is little comfort in Skidmore’s narrative. He expresses few doubts that Richard did away with his young nephews, the Princes in the Tower, in 1483. Nor does one warm to a king with henchmen like ‘the black knight’, who, tradition has it, punished offenders by the rolling them downhill in spiked barrels. According to Skidmore by the summer of the battle in 1485, Richard was haemorrhaging support so badly that even the servant who had dressed the king for his coronation abandoned him. Even so, England was not simply there for the taking by the obscure Henry Tudor.
Henry’s sole blood claim to the throne came through his mother’s illegitimate descent from John of Gaunt, which amounted to no claim at all. His army was an invasion force, backed by France, and over half the men were French, with the rest made up of Scots and Welsh, as well as English. In his rallying speech at Bosworth Richard condemned Henry as an ‘unknown Welshman,’ come to ‘overcome and oppress’ England with his ‘fainthearted Frenchmen’. But as Henry reminded them, there was no hope for their survival or escape without victory. The ships that had delivered them from France had sailed way again, ‘Backward we cannot fly, so that here we stand like sheep in a fold circumcepted and compassed between our enemies and doubtful friends’.
Pre-eminent amongst Henry’s ‘doubtful friends’ was his stepfather Thomas, Lord Stanley, whose eldest son was Richard’s hostage. Stanley’s vast force – bigger than Henry’s whole army – was ranged on the hills above the opposing armies and neither side was certain who he would chose to back and when. A shout from Richard’s greatest ally, the Duke of Norfolk and the whistle of arrows, announced the battle’s beginning. For me, one of the most startling revelations concerning what followed is that it was a woman’s hand that then guided the manoeuvres of Henry Tudor’s army.
The Venetian born Christine de Pizan is well known for her poetry and allegorical works, but she was also the author of a manual on military warfare dating to around 1410: ‘The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry’. Henry’s commander, the Earl of Oxford, confronted and defeated Norfolk’s attack using a series of classic manoeuvres lifted from her manual, and in gratitude later commissioned William Caxton to translate and publish it.
After his ally Norfolk was killed, Richard, decided to end the battle quickly with a direct attack on Henry, who he spotted standing away from the body of his army, surrounded by a small guard. As Richard’s cavalry thundered down the hill, standards streaming, Henry, looked up and saw the crowned figure of the king galloping towards him. The hand to hand fighting was ferocious and Henry’s men on the point of despair when Lord Stanley’s brother, Sir William, chose to engage his forces, on Henry’s side. Richard, shouting ‘Treason! Treason! Treason!’ continued battling towards Henry until, ‘fighting manfully in the midst of his enemies he was slain’. Skidmore describes in forensic detail exactly what happened, using evidence from the bones, contemporary descriptions, and his knowledge of medieval warfare to build a vivid picture of the death of the last Plantagenet king.
Skidmore’s Bosworth is far more than a book on the battle - it is also the story of Henry Tudor’s youth and of Richard III’s usurpation, but this is now the definitive book on Bosworth, the battle that marked in 1485 the last successful invasion of England. A version of this review was written by me for The Spectator in May 2013
Five million people in the UK watched the Channel Four programme The King Under the Car Park that first revealed Richard really did have slight bones, and one shoulder higher than another, as the earliest sources had always claimed. It caught the national imagination with the details of the injuries Richard suffered at Bosworth bringing the violence of the battle to life. Chris Skidmore’s ‘Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors’ could scarcely have been published at a better moment, and it is just the right book for all those whose interest has been piqued by the archaeology.
For admirers of Richard III, including all those who were convinced that tales of Richard’s twisted spine was Tudor propaganda, there is little comfort in Skidmore’s narrative. He expresses few doubts that Richard did away with his young nephews, the Princes in the Tower, in 1483. Nor does one warm to a king with henchmen like ‘the black knight’, who, tradition has it, punished offenders by the rolling them downhill in spiked barrels. According to Skidmore by the summer of the battle in 1485, Richard was haemorrhaging support so badly that even the servant who had dressed the king for his coronation abandoned him. Even so, England was not simply there for the taking by the obscure Henry Tudor.
Henry’s sole blood claim to the throne came through his mother’s illegitimate descent from John of Gaunt, which amounted to no claim at all. His army was an invasion force, backed by France, and over half the men were French, with the rest made up of Scots and Welsh, as well as English. In his rallying speech at Bosworth Richard condemned Henry as an ‘unknown Welshman,’ come to ‘overcome and oppress’ England with his ‘fainthearted Frenchmen’. But as Henry reminded them, there was no hope for their survival or escape without victory. The ships that had delivered them from France had sailed way again, ‘Backward we cannot fly, so that here we stand like sheep in a fold circumcepted and compassed between our enemies and doubtful friends’.
Pre-eminent amongst Henry’s ‘doubtful friends’ was his stepfather Thomas, Lord Stanley, whose eldest son was Richard’s hostage. Stanley’s vast force – bigger than Henry’s whole army – was ranged on the hills above the opposing armies and neither side was certain who he would chose to back and when. A shout from Richard’s greatest ally, the Duke of Norfolk and the whistle of arrows, announced the battle’s beginning. For me, one of the most startling revelations concerning what followed is that it was a woman’s hand that then guided the manoeuvres of Henry Tudor’s army.
The Venetian born Christine de Pizan is well known for her poetry and allegorical works, but she was also the author of a manual on military warfare dating to around 1410: ‘The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry’. Henry’s commander, the Earl of Oxford, confronted and defeated Norfolk’s attack using a series of classic manoeuvres lifted from her manual, and in gratitude later commissioned William Caxton to translate and publish it.
After his ally Norfolk was killed, Richard, decided to end the battle quickly with a direct attack on Henry, who he spotted standing away from the body of his army, surrounded by a small guard. As Richard’s cavalry thundered down the hill, standards streaming, Henry, looked up and saw the crowned figure of the king galloping towards him. The hand to hand fighting was ferocious and Henry’s men on the point of despair when Lord Stanley’s brother, Sir William, chose to engage his forces, on Henry’s side. Richard, shouting ‘Treason! Treason! Treason!’ continued battling towards Henry until, ‘fighting manfully in the midst of his enemies he was slain’. Skidmore describes in forensic detail exactly what happened, using evidence from the bones, contemporary descriptions, and his knowledge of medieval warfare to build a vivid picture of the death of the last Plantagenet king.
Skidmore’s Bosworth is far more than a book on the battle - it is also the story of Henry Tudor’s youth and of Richard III’s usurpation, but this is now the definitive book on Bosworth, the battle that marked in 1485 the last successful invasion of England. A version of this review was written by me for The Spectator in May 2013
September 4, 2017
Provides a good understanding of how Henry Tudor came to be king of England in 1485. Lots of the story flow and the reader learn much (or at least I did). Others including mothers, fathers, uncles, nephews, cousins, kings, princes, lords, earls, dukes and commoners young, old and bold (and some not so bold) all feature to show the complexities of noble families, inheritance and politics at the time of the wars of the roses .
For a paperback edition the author, editor and publishers deserve credit for a well laid out book with good quality colour plates and clear, sharp maps.
This version includes an updated chapter on the location and identification of Richard III's body under a car park in Leicester (was the site of Greyfriars monastery dissolved by Henry VIII in 1538).
Rounded up from a 3.5 to 4 for GR's rating system. ** Amended up to 4 as per comments 1 and 2 below.
For a paperback edition the author, editor and publishers deserve credit for a well laid out book with good quality colour plates and clear, sharp maps.
This version includes an updated chapter on the location and identification of Richard III's body under a car park in Leicester (was the site of Greyfriars monastery dissolved by Henry VIII in 1538).
Rounded up from a 3.5 to 4 for GR's rating system. ** Amended up to 4 as per comments 1 and 2 below.
November 17, 2013
The Battle of Bosworth, the last significant battle in the War of the Roses, has become the stuff of legends. Who hasn't seen Shakespear's dramatic reimagining in the play, Richard III? But there are two sides to this story and since only victors write history, the problem with Bosworth has always been teasing out fact from legend.
The Tudor kings and queens were, rightly, concerned with their image, and what better way to establish the validity of a new royal house than to have God sanction it with victory on the battlefield. There, alone, was reason enough to shade the truth. But what really happened? How did the grandson of a commoner, with questionable lineage and inferior forces, wrest the English crown from the last Yorkist king? Why did Richard III's vast army melt away so readily during the skirmish? And why did a seasoned warrior charge forward into the midst of carnage to his ultimate death?
Chris Skidmore's spellbinding narrative answers these questions and explains the twisted path that led to the battle. Along the way he gives us insight into the medieval alliances and bloodthirsty politics of the age. One is left in awe of the herculean task of such a thoroughly researched history. After all - unearthing new, original documents from such a significant event that occurred more than five-hundred years ago - cannot have been easy.
No doubt the sales of Skidmore's history benefit greatly from the recent discovery of Richard III's gravesite and it is here where I wish the story gave us more detail. The condition of the body - discovered without feet, the forensic pathology and genetic science used in identification, the reason why the body was buried so haphazardly, all these things are barely discussed. Perhaps, living in the age of CSI, I expect too much. Still it would have been nice to read about the person (or persons) used to match the skeleton with the York genetic profile and, perhaps, delve into a physical description of a reconstructed Richard as he was in life, based on the pathology of the skeleton.
Still Bosworth, The Birth of the Tudors is an absorbing tale, well worth the time. A must read for anyone seeking to understand English history.
The Tudor kings and queens were, rightly, concerned with their image, and what better way to establish the validity of a new royal house than to have God sanction it with victory on the battlefield. There, alone, was reason enough to shade the truth. But what really happened? How did the grandson of a commoner, with questionable lineage and inferior forces, wrest the English crown from the last Yorkist king? Why did Richard III's vast army melt away so readily during the skirmish? And why did a seasoned warrior charge forward into the midst of carnage to his ultimate death?
Chris Skidmore's spellbinding narrative answers these questions and explains the twisted path that led to the battle. Along the way he gives us insight into the medieval alliances and bloodthirsty politics of the age. One is left in awe of the herculean task of such a thoroughly researched history. After all - unearthing new, original documents from such a significant event that occurred more than five-hundred years ago - cannot have been easy.
No doubt the sales of Skidmore's history benefit greatly from the recent discovery of Richard III's gravesite and it is here where I wish the story gave us more detail. The condition of the body - discovered without feet, the forensic pathology and genetic science used in identification, the reason why the body was buried so haphazardly, all these things are barely discussed. Perhaps, living in the age of CSI, I expect too much. Still it would have been nice to read about the person (or persons) used to match the skeleton with the York genetic profile and, perhaps, delve into a physical description of a reconstructed Richard as he was in life, based on the pathology of the skeleton.
Still Bosworth, The Birth of the Tudors is an absorbing tale, well worth the time. A must read for anyone seeking to understand English history.
April 18, 2014
(I read the edition published under the title The Rise of the Tudors)
I had been looking for a clear narrative on the War of the Roses. At last, here it is! Chris Skidmore whose work I know through his books earlier books:Death And The Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy Robsart and Edward VI: The Lost King of England has pulled this all together.
The first section shows the problems of the reign of Henry VI and Richard of York's reaction to the many slights and the costs he bore for the king. It ends with the reign of Edward IV. This and the start of the next part describing Richard III's usurpation of the throne are spectacular for their stories and the clarity of Skidmore's prose.
While Richard III imprisons the princes (and their tutors) and rewards friends and punishes slights there are interesting doings in France where Henry Tudor is a chess piece (at times hostage, a guest and finally a royal heir). Alongside this there is some pretty thick reading. The size of the schism is shown through a catalog of nobles and stakeholders (many merely names in history) choosing sides, gaining and losing property and/or being brutally killed. There are listings of armaments purchased and stockpiled. All this builds to a very well described battle at Bosworth where Skidmore is careful to note sources and conflicting sources.
The last two chapters return to page turning narratives on the aftermath of the Battle (Henry's preparations to keep peace and rule), the research on the battlefield and the latest on the discovery of Richard III's remains.
Skidmore sticks with the givens. He steers so clear of editorial comment, that Thomas Stanley is only briefly noted as married to Henry's mother. He resisted adding drama by not mentioning that Stanley is Henry's step-father at critical points, particularly the final battle.
Henry's mother, Margaret Beaufort, does not get much attention in proportion to the role she seems to have played.
The genealogical chart is excellent as is Skidmore's narration on the complex and disputed relationships. When I checked the maps, all the places noted were there (seems that this should be a given, but in many books it's not).
I highly recommend this for the general reader. It is the best I have found (and I've been looking) to explain the War of the Roses.
I had been looking for a clear narrative on the War of the Roses. At last, here it is! Chris Skidmore whose work I know through his books earlier books:Death And The Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy Robsart and Edward VI: The Lost King of England has pulled this all together.
The first section shows the problems of the reign of Henry VI and Richard of York's reaction to the many slights and the costs he bore for the king. It ends with the reign of Edward IV. This and the start of the next part describing Richard III's usurpation of the throne are spectacular for their stories and the clarity of Skidmore's prose.
While Richard III imprisons the princes (and their tutors) and rewards friends and punishes slights there are interesting doings in France where Henry Tudor is a chess piece (at times hostage, a guest and finally a royal heir). Alongside this there is some pretty thick reading. The size of the schism is shown through a catalog of nobles and stakeholders (many merely names in history) choosing sides, gaining and losing property and/or being brutally killed. There are listings of armaments purchased and stockpiled. All this builds to a very well described battle at Bosworth where Skidmore is careful to note sources and conflicting sources.
The last two chapters return to page turning narratives on the aftermath of the Battle (Henry's preparations to keep peace and rule), the research on the battlefield and the latest on the discovery of Richard III's remains.
Skidmore sticks with the givens. He steers so clear of editorial comment, that Thomas Stanley is only briefly noted as married to Henry's mother. He resisted adding drama by not mentioning that Stanley is Henry's step-father at critical points, particularly the final battle.
Henry's mother, Margaret Beaufort, does not get much attention in proportion to the role she seems to have played.
The genealogical chart is excellent as is Skidmore's narration on the complex and disputed relationships. When I checked the maps, all the places noted were there (seems that this should be a given, but in many books it's not).
I highly recommend this for the general reader. It is the best I have found (and I've been looking) to explain the War of the Roses.
March 30, 2014
The Battle of Bosworth Field is an enigma as for the location of the battle itself. With the name Bosworth not being cited until decades later to the point it had become common by 1534 when Polydore Vergil's History of England was published. Redemore, Ambion Hill -Crown Hill, Stoke. These are all synonymous to where the battle is supposed to take place to Sande Hill where Richard was unhorsed and killed in battle. Drawing from various accounts and archaeological evidence, Chris Skidmore tries to piece all the evidence together but as he says in the Postcript, it is nearly impossible to piece a puzzle where there are so many pieces missing. We can come with the likeliest angle, but not the exact one. Chris Skidmore's work is professional and he is not there to convince you, to give you an exact answer, the only way anyone can say with one hundred percent certainty this is what happened is by time-travelling. As far as science is concerned that isn't possible, the closest thing we have is written sources and archaeological work. And once more Chris Skidmore proves that history and archaeology must work together to piece as much as it can, all the pieces of the puzzle.
But the book goes beyond using secondary and primary sources to piece where the battles likely took place (Dandlington, Ambion -though possibly not on a Hill but a plain though using secondary sources on this one needs to be careful; Stoke). It is about the dynastic conflict, the geo-political alliances and rivalries between claimants to the throne, families, and divisions that were the center of this conflict. Beginning with the first known Tudor, Owen Tudor to his union to Katherine of Valois to their eldest children. The book gives a background to Henry VII's family, as well as some quick background to the source behind the wars of the roses (also now known to us as "cousins' war"). Henry's story is one that could have become just another footnote in history, yet his rise to power brought about by tragedy in the Lancaster line and divisions in the Yorkist line, is something that still amazes and is, as Skidmore mentions, noteworthy.
Richard's background (albeit briefly) is also exclaimed. A better fighter with more experienced that Henry, with a larger army and Lord Strange (Henry's stepfather's son) in his custody, he had all the odds in winning. But as history has shown us, the odds are never in anyone's favor. Everything from the possible escape to George Stanley from Richard's camp making Thomas Stanley and his brother William declare for Henry, to Northumberland's troops' inaction, to Rhys ap Thomas defecting days earlier to Henry's side, to more importantly the weather and the confusion of the battle as "the sun must have gone in their eyes" to dusty fields providing more confusion, earned Henry Tudor the victory he had prayed days before for, and he had desperately fought for.
But the story doesn't end there. The author goes further into the possible reasons why some defected (going beyond the black and white scenarios of making heroes and villains of either side) to Henry's side, why some chose not to fight for either party, why chose to fight but at the last minute decided to stand still.
It is an extraordinary account, however at the end it was rushed as it addressed Henry's last years of his reign but perhaps this was intentional as the author's main point of the battlefield and Henry's much needed Northern alliances (for which he had chosen to give to some lords and towns much needed favor as Richard had once done, knowing the importance of them), to the critique of his ordinance after his first parliament was summoned in 1485 in November 7 and his decision ten years later to overturn his decision; speaks of the effects of the battle years later into Henry's reign.
Piecing together the history of Bosworth and where the battle actually took place, is just part of the story, what is behind the men who fought, the people they angered or made their allies is the other part that is seldom explored and the author explores that story bringing to us a broader portrait of the battle that took place on that fateful day in August 22, 1485.
Of the best and most unbias, objective accounts of this battle and the people involved in it as well as the significance behind it and the reason behind each soldier, each region, each leader's allegiance, and decision taken that day.
I recommend it, not just to any history buff, but anyone looking for a serious work on the subject.
But the book goes beyond using secondary and primary sources to piece where the battles likely took place (Dandlington, Ambion -though possibly not on a Hill but a plain though using secondary sources on this one needs to be careful; Stoke). It is about the dynastic conflict, the geo-political alliances and rivalries between claimants to the throne, families, and divisions that were the center of this conflict. Beginning with the first known Tudor, Owen Tudor to his union to Katherine of Valois to their eldest children. The book gives a background to Henry VII's family, as well as some quick background to the source behind the wars of the roses (also now known to us as "cousins' war"). Henry's story is one that could have become just another footnote in history, yet his rise to power brought about by tragedy in the Lancaster line and divisions in the Yorkist line, is something that still amazes and is, as Skidmore mentions, noteworthy.
Richard's background (albeit briefly) is also exclaimed. A better fighter with more experienced that Henry, with a larger army and Lord Strange (Henry's stepfather's son) in his custody, he had all the odds in winning. But as history has shown us, the odds are never in anyone's favor. Everything from the possible escape to George Stanley from Richard's camp making Thomas Stanley and his brother William declare for Henry, to Northumberland's troops' inaction, to Rhys ap Thomas defecting days earlier to Henry's side, to more importantly the weather and the confusion of the battle as "the sun must have gone in their eyes" to dusty fields providing more confusion, earned Henry Tudor the victory he had prayed days before for, and he had desperately fought for.
But the story doesn't end there. The author goes further into the possible reasons why some defected (going beyond the black and white scenarios of making heroes and villains of either side) to Henry's side, why some chose not to fight for either party, why chose to fight but at the last minute decided to stand still.
It is an extraordinary account, however at the end it was rushed as it addressed Henry's last years of his reign but perhaps this was intentional as the author's main point of the battlefield and Henry's much needed Northern alliances (for which he had chosen to give to some lords and towns much needed favor as Richard had once done, knowing the importance of them), to the critique of his ordinance after his first parliament was summoned in 1485 in November 7 and his decision ten years later to overturn his decision; speaks of the effects of the battle years later into Henry's reign.
Piecing together the history of Bosworth and where the battle actually took place, is just part of the story, what is behind the men who fought, the people they angered or made their allies is the other part that is seldom explored and the author explores that story bringing to us a broader portrait of the battle that took place on that fateful day in August 22, 1485.
Of the best and most unbias, objective accounts of this battle and the people involved in it as well as the significance behind it and the reason behind each soldier, each region, each leader's allegiance, and decision taken that day.
I recommend it, not just to any history buff, but anyone looking for a serious work on the subject.
August 2, 2015
Five stars for a thoroughly researched, 'up to the minute' history. Published in 2013 and already a change in the sub-title from 'The Rise of the Tudors', my copy changed to 'The Birth of the Tudors'. The birth comes after a great labour from Chris Skidmore that takes us back to the boudoir of Catherine of Valois (widow of Henry V). The reader has around one hundred pages prior to the sudden demise of Edward IV. Then, all hell breaks loose. Richard Plantagenet's coup and Henry Tudor's manoeuvres in Brittany and France, very well documented with contemporary sources, coming to the crescendo of the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485. Not just the birth of a dynasty, but the death knell of the 'Wars of the Roses' and the passing of medieval England. A real epic in four hundred pages. The plotting and power struggles of Lancaster and Yorkist factions make this book a compulsive page turner, a real 'game of thrones'. Blood feuds, alliances forged and broken, traitors, vicious battles and forces changing sides...a history that's got the lot!
The author not only provides the detail with his documentary evidence but provides the latest archaeological knowledge from Dadlington/Redemore/Ambion Hill/Bosworth.
By way of a Postscript the recent discovery of Richard III's burial in Leicester is included for completion.
A very full and comprehensive treatment of this period. Some of the text includes quotations from sources without providing a note of the source, but that is my only minor criticism of a fair and unbiased 'Bosworth'.
The author not only provides the detail with his documentary evidence but provides the latest archaeological knowledge from Dadlington/Redemore/Ambion Hill/Bosworth.
By way of a Postscript the recent discovery of Richard III's burial in Leicester is included for completion.
A very full and comprehensive treatment of this period. Some of the text includes quotations from sources without providing a note of the source, but that is my only minor criticism of a fair and unbiased 'Bosworth'.
August 18, 2016
I bought this book because, like many others, I find the Tudors fascinating, and in particular because I love the fact that they were such unlikely contenders for the throne yet became one of the most synonymous with it.
'Bosworth' is more detailed and expansive than I was expecting, beginning 60 years before the Battle of Bosworth itself, and taking the reader through the reigns of Henry VI, Edward IV, Richard III, and finally Henry VII. This is the story not just of how Henry VII literally came to be king, planning in exile, invading England, and winning the Battle of Bosworth, but of how the circumstances in England, and in Europe, allowed this incredible turn of events. Skidmore examines and presents all the perspectives, politics, and practicalities in this impeccably researched book, which even allows a postscript for the 2012 discovery of Richard III's body, without allowing the reader's interest to flag.
The birth of the Tudors is a truly remarkable story, and it would appear that Skidmore is the man to tell it.
'Bosworth' is more detailed and expansive than I was expecting, beginning 60 years before the Battle of Bosworth itself, and taking the reader through the reigns of Henry VI, Edward IV, Richard III, and finally Henry VII. This is the story not just of how Henry VII literally came to be king, planning in exile, invading England, and winning the Battle of Bosworth, but of how the circumstances in England, and in Europe, allowed this incredible turn of events. Skidmore examines and presents all the perspectives, politics, and practicalities in this impeccably researched book, which even allows a postscript for the 2012 discovery of Richard III's body, without allowing the reader's interest to flag.
The birth of the Tudors is a truly remarkable story, and it would appear that Skidmore is the man to tell it.
July 31, 2013
Masterful! The level of detail is simply breath-taking with such insights into the myriad subtle connections amongst the characters of all stations. Were this a work of fiction the editor would have protested that the plot was far too complex.
November 27, 2022
Interesting subject but could be dry in place’s unfortunately!
March 19, 2025
How to have your conception of your hero shattered. Still my favourite king dick the third
June 8, 2019
A narrative history of the Wars of the Roses, Chris Skidmore vividly and eagerly draws on a number of secondary sources, manuscripts, ballads(!), and even the recent (in the timeline of this book's publication) discovery of Richard III's skeleton under the car park to recreate Henry Tudor's rise to power and kingship. Of course, this book is not just about Henry VII, but Skidmore puts him at the forefront even when he is in the background of events. This is a story not just about the battles and the alliances that occurred during these civil wars, but about how a boy with a flimsy claim to the throne (through an illegitimate-later-legitimate line descended through his mother) became the patriarch of the Tudor dynasty. It is not a history of the Tudors, but of how they came to be; this was something I had to remind myself when I got towards the end and was disappointed that it was being wrapped up so quickly. I especially enjoy the way Skidmore writes of all these figures during this long time period, showing who they were, what they faced, and what motivated them. It is a compelling read, although I do wish it had been less concerned with battles and movements and more concerned on a personal level, but I understand this is not the book to do so. However, the lack of anything on the women involved (in large roles!!) during the wars is shocking -- I think Margaret of Anjou gets the most featured, but he still treats her as more of a background figure than a main player, despite the fact that she was clearly a major player. The same goes for Margaret Beaufort, whose exclusion is honestly insulting!! Elizabeth of York, due to the lack of sources(?), I would give more of a pass on, but as someone who is largely interested in this time period because of EOY, I can't ignore it that much. Still, this book is a great account of a fraught time period that illuminates key figures, actions, battles, outcomes, and consequences.
October 2, 2014
A potentially great read, hamstrung. Skidmore's Bosworth has two major problems: 1.) hamstrung by a lack of primary sources, the author is forced to provide a dry recounting of events rather than the kind of in-depth character studies that engage readers. In the end, readers come to history for the same reason they come to fiction: because they want to know about *people*.
Some of this is not Skidmore's fault: Much of the action of the Wars of the Roses is between people "so lofty they shit marble" (to quote Motzart in the film Amadeus) which makes it impossible for the common reader to sympathize. Most of the book is therefore a highly repetitive accounting of treachery, battle, flight to Scotland or the continent, scheming, raising an army, and then more of the same.
2.) The book purports to be a monograph that provides an in-depth accounting of the battle, in the tradition of books like 1453 (fall of Constantinople) or A Terrible Glory (The Little Bighorn), but 150 pages into the book, we are still reading about dynastic maneuver so far removed from Bosworth that Skidmore could almost be accused of false advertising.
A competent history, and not as dry as it could have been, but overall, a disappointment.
Some of this is not Skidmore's fault: Much of the action of the Wars of the Roses is between people "so lofty they shit marble" (to quote Motzart in the film Amadeus) which makes it impossible for the common reader to sympathize. Most of the book is therefore a highly repetitive accounting of treachery, battle, flight to Scotland or the continent, scheming, raising an army, and then more of the same.
2.) The book purports to be a monograph that provides an in-depth accounting of the battle, in the tradition of books like 1453 (fall of Constantinople) or A Terrible Glory (The Little Bighorn), but 150 pages into the book, we are still reading about dynastic maneuver so far removed from Bosworth that Skidmore could almost be accused of false advertising.
A competent history, and not as dry as it could have been, but overall, a disappointment.
August 27, 2019
As a self proclaimed Yorkist, I must admit I was not as familiar with the Rise of the Tudors and their business during the Wars of the Roses. That said, this book does an excellent job of detailing where the Tudor lineage came from and their exploits during that politically divisive time.
The book does focus, at times, on the Yorks -prinarily Edward and Richard- however, their stories are necessary to understand the circumstances which made Henry Tudor's ascension possible.
A sizable section of the book is dedicated to the Battle of Bosworth, however, Skidmore takes this time to reflect upon and state what likely happened between various historical accounts. It is fascinating to learn how Henry Tudor won a battle that, by all accounts, he should not have.
This book was an excellent read and made me more informed as to the events of the Wars of the Roses, and I reccomend it to anyone wanting to learn a touch more history.
The book does focus, at times, on the Yorks -prinarily Edward and Richard- however, their stories are necessary to understand the circumstances which made Henry Tudor's ascension possible.
A sizable section of the book is dedicated to the Battle of Bosworth, however, Skidmore takes this time to reflect upon and state what likely happened between various historical accounts. It is fascinating to learn how Henry Tudor won a battle that, by all accounts, he should not have.
This book was an excellent read and made me more informed as to the events of the Wars of the Roses, and I reccomend it to anyone wanting to learn a touch more history.
August 22, 2017
The title is misleading. Rather than focusing on Bosworth, first comes several chapters on the Wars of the Roses. It’s well-researched, but I’ve read superior accounts of the WOTR.
The chapter that covers Bosworth proved the most interesting. I like how the author dissected the battle and added personality to the people involved. Thought Henry VII's years on the throne would've been covered in detail, bearing in mind the book's subtitle, but this isn't the case.
The narrative failed to engage me most of the time and I admit to skimming sections. Like many history books, here is another author who writes epic sentences, littered with punctuation to keep them going. This includes an overuse and misuse of colons, something that always irritates me.
The chapter that covers Bosworth proved the most interesting. I like how the author dissected the battle and added personality to the people involved. Thought Henry VII's years on the throne would've been covered in detail, bearing in mind the book's subtitle, but this isn't the case.
The narrative failed to engage me most of the time and I admit to skimming sections. Like many history books, here is another author who writes epic sentences, littered with punctuation to keep them going. This includes an overuse and misuse of colons, something that always irritates me.
June 24, 2020
I purchased this book from the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre after finding the tour and my visit very enjoyable and informative. My thought process was, buy a book on the battle from the gift shop and immerse myself into the subject.
Sadly, I made the mistake of purchasing Chris Skidmore's book. The first 10 chapters are basically The Cousin's War told in a plodding and turgid manner. Even the battle chapters are not much better written.
Sadly, I made the mistake of purchasing Chris Skidmore's book. The first 10 chapters are basically The Cousin's War told in a plodding and turgid manner. Even the battle chapters are not much better written.
May 5, 2024
[1 Jul 2018] This is a book that is based on a vast amount of very meticulous research and presents a very detailed account of this period of history. It is well referenced and is interesting and relatively well written. I actually think it is light on the family history of the Tudors - picking them up a generation or so before Henry VII. So not really about the birth of the Tudors (but more about one of them - Henry VII). I loved the detail, but found the beginning and the middle of the book pretty hard going and on reflection, remain uncertain as to why this is. I can only conclude that the sheer number of characters and their conspiratorial and contradictory behaviour just confused. Multiple people all with complex, changeable and sometime illogical agenda appear and disappear. Also, I do think some of the language used is, at times, slightly plodding and I did struggle to engage with the narrative and the characters - because there were so many who had a small 'walk-on' part I didn't connect the lots of them and it made sticking with it hard work. Even the 'family-tree' had gaps and with constant reference helped some time, but not always.
When the story moved to the actual battle and the number of people reduced it became much more interesting, engaging and at times gripping. This only occurs late in the book. The detail is wonderful and the attempt to relate place to the modern area absorbing. I liked the follow-up of key-players: what happened to them and in particular the finding of Richard III's body under the carpark. The discussion about the current theories and finds from the battle field and what it tells us today was very interesting a better map would have helped me.
Overal, I found this book detailed, interesting and informative - It is clearly an achievement of research and is probably the best source on the Battle of Bosworth available. However the period is confusing, conflicting and contradictory and therefore this book will demand maximum attention and effort.
When the story moved to the actual battle and the number of people reduced it became much more interesting, engaging and at times gripping. This only occurs late in the book. The detail is wonderful and the attempt to relate place to the modern area absorbing. I liked the follow-up of key-players: what happened to them and in particular the finding of Richard III's body under the carpark. The discussion about the current theories and finds from the battle field and what it tells us today was very interesting a better map would have helped me.
Overal, I found this book detailed, interesting and informative - It is clearly an achievement of research and is probably the best source on the Battle of Bosworth available. However the period is confusing, conflicting and contradictory and therefore this book will demand maximum attention and effort.
January 11, 2023
Chris Skidmore is an exceptional historical writer, let's get that out of the way. Interesting, vivid and for the most part extremely unbiased, especially considering how debatable the events and protagonists of this specific period (Wars of the Roses) have proven to be.
This book certainly delivers. Well-researched and making use of contemporary sources, one is presented with the facts without an overbearing narrator who attempts to push his/her interpretation of the facts on an unsuspecting reader.
The reason I have given four stars instead of five is because I thought that there was perhaps a little too much build-up to the actual battle of Bosworth; two thirds of the book are spent going over the entire Wars of the Roses, not enough to merit a retitling of the book, but also a bit more than I would have liked in a book specifically named "Bosworth."
But definitely a must-read for history buffs.
This book certainly delivers. Well-researched and making use of contemporary sources, one is presented with the facts without an overbearing narrator who attempts to push his/her interpretation of the facts on an unsuspecting reader.
The reason I have given four stars instead of five is because I thought that there was perhaps a little too much build-up to the actual battle of Bosworth; two thirds of the book are spent going over the entire Wars of the Roses, not enough to merit a retitling of the book, but also a bit more than I would have liked in a book specifically named "Bosworth."
But definitely a must-read for history buffs.
March 29, 2019
Incredibly informative book that weaves in its source material well. Acknowledges the lack of definitive research material where applicable. When possible the writing is as well executed almost reading like non fiction in its ability to set scenes & establish certain historical figures as characters to engage with. The sheer amount of research is on show which renders sections of the book a little dry due to the need to share as much information as possible. This is especially true of the last few chapters. That being said this is as good an account of the period of the Wars of the Roses & the Battle of Bosworth as a reader could expect & I’d recommend it to anyone interested in historical non fiction.
January 18, 2024
Full of detail and source material and very thorough research and great for the story of the rise and fall of Plantegants and fall and rise again of the Lancastrians. Fight for power, alliances, power broking all in the mix.
However I feel that as always in history, it is the winners whose story is upheld and I fear Mr Skidmore does fall into that trap especially in his account of Richard III. The truth of this story will never be really known because to the victor the spoils. All of history is tainted by the victors. Nothing has changed.
Nevertheless, it is good book probably more for reference than a novel. It seems to fall down in-between the two genres. Great to use in studying this area of history, but be aware there is bias here as we find in most history telling.
However I feel that as always in history, it is the winners whose story is upheld and I fear Mr Skidmore does fall into that trap especially in his account of Richard III. The truth of this story will never be really known because to the victor the spoils. All of history is tainted by the victors. Nothing has changed.
Nevertheless, it is good book probably more for reference than a novel. It seems to fall down in-between the two genres. Great to use in studying this area of history, but be aware there is bias here as we find in most history telling.
August 5, 2017
Still not convinced Richard III was the complete and total bastard Skidmore makes him out to be (semi-validating Shakespeare), but this was really well done and written so a non-specialist can learn a lot and enjoy doing so.
The Dan Jones I'm reading concurrently (more or less) hasn't got to Richard, the Duke of Gloucester yet; we'll see how he fares there.
Highly recommended if you are into the Wars of the Roses and the Tudors at all - even if only through Game of Thrones, or that Tudors series on Showtime, or the Phillipa Gregory miniseries The White Queen and The White Princess.
The Dan Jones I'm reading concurrently (more or less) hasn't got to Richard, the Duke of Gloucester yet; we'll see how he fares there.
Highly recommended if you are into the Wars of the Roses and the Tudors at all - even if only through Game of Thrones, or that Tudors series on Showtime, or the Phillipa Gregory miniseries The White Queen and The White Princess.
November 11, 2019
This is a very detailed account of the run up to Bosworth and assumes a great deal about the reader. You better know your Lord Buckinghams from your Warwicks, your Margarets from your Catherines, your Woodvilles from your Nevilles and so on. Mr Skidmore is a recognised expert in this area and the reader's immersion into the period is enjoyable if you are prepared to take the plunge. It's quite academic and very detailed so I would suggest some kind of WOTR primer before throwing yourself into this. Still, it tickled my History bone and I feel like I learned about a subject I think I am familiar with.
January 5, 2020
Really good reading
If you’re interested in this particular period of history and its participants, then this is certainly a book for you. Heaven knows how he does it but Chris Skidmore has done extensive research using original documents to piece together this most fascinating period of time. As you read on, it all comes vividly alive. Want to know more about the in and outs of all the characters involved with this slice of history? Then get this book. I can thoroughly recommend you buying it.
If you’re interested in this particular period of history and its participants, then this is certainly a book for you. Heaven knows how he does it but Chris Skidmore has done extensive research using original documents to piece together this most fascinating period of time. As you read on, it all comes vividly alive. Want to know more about the in and outs of all the characters involved with this slice of history? Then get this book. I can thoroughly recommend you buying it.
August 15, 2021
The moral of this story is that tyranny doesn’t engender loyalty and had Edward IV not prematurely passed Henry VIII and his ‘Merry wives of Windsor’ would never have become the raison d’etre of every school history teacher
This book tells the tale of how Henry Tudor rose from being a welsh bastard to the first Tudor monarch through dint of being the only alternative to the hated hunchback Richard after the Wars of the Roses had inexorably crushed the flower of the English gentry
Well written and researched it’s a fascinating and very readable book
This book tells the tale of how Henry Tudor rose from being a welsh bastard to the first Tudor monarch through dint of being the only alternative to the hated hunchback Richard after the Wars of the Roses had inexorably crushed the flower of the English gentry
Well written and researched it’s a fascinating and very readable book
April 29, 2020
Detailed book on events just before Battle of Bosworth, the battle itself and the events, rewards and retributions afterwards. Uses and quotes primary sources in some detail although other reviewers have questioned the accuracy of some of the author`s interpretations. At times a bit of a plodding style of writing but I was informed about the likely political moves of the key actors apart from the king and potential king. I thought it was rather anti Richard and pro Henry Tudor.
July 16, 2018
Excellent detailed account of the events that led up to the War of the Roses and a brief bit on its aftermath.
I would recommend this to people who already know a bit about Henry VI, and Edward IV. It is quite name-heavy so I would advise to watch a documentary beforehand to know who the key players were.
I would recommend this to people who already know a bit about Henry VI, and Edward IV. It is quite name-heavy so I would advise to watch a documentary beforehand to know who the key players were.
August 30, 2020
I have always be interested in the Tudor period of history and have read several books on them. While this book gave a detailed synopsis of this time period I found it a little dry in parts and sadly struggled to get through it. It wasn't a terrible book just not of my my favourites on the subject matter. I did give it a 3.5 out of 5 stars as it is after all history which I love!!
November 14, 2025
At the end of the day this isn't about Bosworth; it's a parallel life history of Richard III and Henry VII, a bit pro-Henry in weight and possibly sentiment, that gets to the battle at the very end. I would have loved more about the battle itself -- the geographic confusion and archaeology alone deserve more than one chapter.
January 28, 2020
A good account of the battle of Bosworth that stopped the wars of the roses and ended the reign of Richard 3rd. It began the rule of the Tudors. This book begins in the telling of the history of the wars of tge roses and ends with the bloody battle of Bosworth. A really good read
March 30, 2021
This was a thoroughly researched but way overly detailed history of the rise of Henry VII and the fall of Richard III in the Wars of the Roses in England. I was glad I had read several fictional accounts of the period by Philippa Gregory so I could keep track of the overall story.
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