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A History of Philosophy #6

A History of Philosophy, Vol. 6: Modern Philosophy, from the French Enlightenment to Kant

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Conceived originally as a serious presentation of the development of philosophy for Catholic seminary students, Frederick Copleston's nine-volume A History Of Philosophy has journeyed far beyond the modest purpose of its author to universal acclaim as the best history of philosophy in English.



Copleston, an Oxford Jesuit of immense erudition who once tangled with A.J. Ayer in a fabled debate about the exiatenceof God and the possibility of metaphysics, knew that seminary students were fed a woefully inadequate diet of theses and proofs, and that their familiarity with most of history's great thinkers was reduced to simplistic caricatures. Copelston sets out to redress the wrong by writing a complete history of Western philosophy, one crackling with incident and intellectual excitement - and one that gives full place to each thinker, presenting his thought in a beautifully rounded manner and showing his links to those who went before and to those who came after them.

528 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1960

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About the author

Frederick Charles Copleston

303 books298 followers
Frederick (Freddie) Charles Copleston was raised an Anglican and educated at Marlborough College from 1920 to 1925. Shortly after his eighteenth birthday he converted to Catholicism, and his father subsequently almost disowned him. After the initial shock, however, his father saw fit to help Copleston through his education and he attended St. John’s in Oxford in 1925, only managing a disappointing third in classical moderations. He redeemed himself somewhat with a good second at Greats in 1929.

In 1930 Copleston became a Jesuit, and, after two years at the Jesuit novitiate in Roehampton, he moved to Heythrop. He was ordained a Jesuit priest at Heythrop College in 1937 and soon after went to Germany (1938) to complete his training. Fortunately he made it back to Britain before the outbreak of war in 1939. The war made it impossible for him to study for his doctorate, as once intended, at the Gregorian University in Rome, and instead Copleston was invited to return to Heythrop to teach the history of philosophy to the few remaining Jesuits there.

While in Heythrop Copleston had time and interest to begin the work he is most famous for, his "A History of Philosophy" - a textbook that originally set out to deliver a clear account of ancient, medieval and modern philosophy in three volumes, which was instead completed in nine volumes (1975). To this day Copleston’s history remains a monumental achievement and stays true to the authors it discusses, being very much a work in exposition.

Copleston adopted a number of honorary roles throughout the remainder of his career. He was appointed Visiting Professor at Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, spending half of each year lecturing there from 1952 to 1968. He was made Fellow of the British Academy (FBA) in 1970, given a personal professorship from his own university (Heythrop, now re-established in the University of London) in 1972 and made an Honorary Fellow of St. John’s College, Oxford, in 1975. He was Visiting Professor at the University of Santa Clara between 1974 and 1982, and he delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Aberdeen between 1979 and 1981. His lectures were published under the title Religion and the One, and were largely a metaphysical tract attempting to express themes perennial in his thinking and more personal than in his history. Gerard J. Hughes notes Copleston as remarking "large doses of metaphysics like that certainly don’t boost one’s sales".

He received honorary doctorates from a number of institutions, notably, Santa Clara University, California, University of Uppsala and the University of St. Andrews (D.Litt) in later years. He was selected for membership in the Royal Institute of Philosophy and in the Aristotelian Society, and in 1993 he was made CBE.

Copleston’s personality saw him engage in the many responsibilities bestowed upon him with generous commitment and good humour.

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Profile Image for Ali Malekpoor.
43 reviews6 followers
December 1, 2025
شیوه نگارش کاپلستون نخ نما و کهنه است‌. قضاوت های گاه و بیگاه بدون توجیه آرای فلاسفه نیز دیگر رنگی ندارد. برای خواندن تاریخ فلسفه مگی و راسل بهترین گزینه به نظر می رسند.
Profile Image for James F.
1,682 reviews124 followers
April 14, 2016
The sixth volume of Copleston's history, and the last one I finished the first time I read these in college, so the last three will be for the first time. This volume covers the Enlightenment/Aufklärung (about 40% of the book, or part one in the old paperback edition which divided it into two books) with particular emphasis on Rousseau, and the philosophy of Kant (about 60%). The treatment of the Enlightenment was as fair as one could hope for from a Catholic priest who is obviously not sympathetic to their project, and the section of Kant was as clear as possible given that it was about Kant. When I read this the first time around, I hadn't yet read a lot of any of these philosophers, except Rousseau on the Social Contract and Kant's Prolegomena; since then I've read quite a bit, including Voltaire, Diderot, Lessing, most of Rousseau and all three of Kant's Critiques, as well as having taken a course that focused on the Critique of Pure Reason. The more I know about these figures the more impressed I am with Copleston's ability to summarize their positions. Otherwise, I won't repeat what I've said in my reviews of the first five books. No substitute for reading the actual philosophers, or even the more specialized secondary works, but still the best general history in English.
Profile Image for John.
179 reviews4 followers
February 4, 2011
Far superior to Kant's version. Copleston's prose is actually understandable.
Profile Image for David .
1,349 reviews197 followers
June 16, 2015
I've slowly been working through Copleston's history of philosophy series, reading about a book a year. This book is basically all about Kant. Sure there is a couple chapters covering a few other people and movements, but Kant is the focus. If you are looking to learn about philosophy, this book, like the series, will stretch you. That is, I would not put these books in the beginner category. Copleston gives an overview, but an in depth overiew (hence the nine volumes). Its probably the best you can do, short of actually reading the philosophers.

Kant tried to overcome the skepticism of Hume while at the same time avoiding the speculative theories of people like Descartes. For Kant, we do not have innate knowledge as we learn things through sense experience, but we do have the tools built into our minds to structure our experience. From there...well you'll have to read the book.

I may get to volume seven sometime next May...
180 reviews
July 27, 2022
18世纪法国启蒙运动很多人解读为对宗教的敌意(理性代替宗教迷信)和反对当时的政治体制(为法国大革命铺平道路)。作者认为这些观点有一定道理但不准确。并非所有的18世纪哲学家都有意识的为革命推波助澜。比如伏尔泰并非真的提倡大众的民主,他只是想为自己和朋友们争取更大的自由。不过确实这些哲学家们都多多少少反对教会的统治,视宗教为无知恐惧的产物,阻碍了知识进步。
但这只是启蒙运动消极的一面(对宗教和皇权的批判),其正面意义在于试图通过理性理解世界尤其人类自身的心理,道德和社会生活。

18世纪的法国哲学家们(跟英国类似)也大多不是大学教授,兼职包括文学家,地理学家,数学家,历史学家,医生。

孟德斯鸠(Montesquieu,1689-1755)treatise on law(17年心血结晶)影响深远。他采用了比较调研的方法来研究社会,法律和政府,奠定了系统研究历史发展原则的基础。

法律和政府的关系。政府有三种:共和(包括民主和贵族制);君主制;专制(despotic)。三种政体的原则分别是公共品德,荣誉和恐惧。不同政体不同法律(但这些分类都是理想状态不代表现实)。

法律和气候及经济条件的关系。一方面他试图从历史数据中总结法律,另一方面他也承认在政治社会出现前存在自然(道德)法律。同时他也热衷于自由,(通过对英国宪法)分析了政治自由的条件:权力的分离(立法,行政和执法权不能集中于同一个人或一群人手中)。

伏尔泰(1694-1778)在英国呆了几年,很欣赏英国相对来说的自由。他说牛顿,洛克和Clarke在法国早就被迫害,在罗马会入狱,在里斯本会被烧死。他把牛顿的哲学介绍给了法国人,并吸收了Bayle,洛克等人的思想,但他本人并非一流的哲学家。作者对他的人品评价不高,说他虚荣,报复心强,愤世嫉俗,理智上肆无忌惮,对卢梭等人的攻击有损他的名誉。但他无疑代表了启蒙运动的精神。他推崇政治自由,但并不赞成大众统治(一直把普通民众称为rabble乌合之众),他只是反对教会的统治,从某种意义上来说是支持君主制的(因为为君主专制扫清了教会这一障碍)。他的进步理念更多地体现在由理性主导的科学和经济进步,而不是政治领域。

法国启蒙运动的一大亮点是百科全书的编纂。第一版(1751-80)共有35卷。这套书的象征意义(历史意义)远高于它的实际内容(不够有条理,内容也参差不齐)。主编Diderot和d’Alembert.

卢梭(1712-78)出生于日内瓦,非常敏感多疑,所以很难维系友谊,跟法国哲学家们(伏尔泰,Direrot等)后来闹翻了,跟休谟也闹翻了。在哲学史上地位显著。他认为人类意识(minds)的腐化程度随着科学艺术的提高而加深,换言之,文明程度越高道德越败坏。政权和政府的区别:前者有立法权,后者的功能是执法。立法者的首要职责是让法律顺从普遍意愿/民意(the general will),尽管实际操作中不一定能实现。而公民的职责是让自己的意愿顺从于普遍意愿。如果法律能够做到真正的顺从民意,那么遵纪守法的公民就是一个真正自由的人(for he obeys a law which expresses his own real will)。这段感觉有点绕圈子。(很难理解我的意见不同于多数派的意见这一事实如何能“证明”我就是错的。)社会契约中最重要的理论就是关于普遍意愿的。

他的税收理论跟现代国家的累进制很接近(富人从国家获利最多所以应该多交税,越富税越高)。

人的基本冲动是自爱(self-love),不同于利己主义(egoism)。前者是人在自然状态下的本能,后者只有在社会中才会存在。共情(compassion)是自爱延伸到他人。人的良知(conscience)是建立在自爱的基础上。而道德因此是人的激情(passions)和情感的自然发展。恶是人的本质的扭曲。文明的兴起使得人类欲望膨胀,人因而变得自私,憎恶和愤怒。尽管卢梭不否认理性和反思在道德观发展中的作用,但他还是更强调情感(feeling)的重要性。

卢梭的社会契约不同于Hobbes的理论。后者要解决的是由于人的本性可能导致的内战,所以每个公民把自己的权力交给一个外在的政权,强有力的中央政府才能有效得避免内战。卢梭强调的是建立契约的各方在自愿的前提下创造了一个新的道德秩序,在此体系下每个成员(比起自然状态下)都能更大程度的实现自我。

普遍意愿不同于所有人的意愿,前者是基于共同利益,后者是所有意愿的总和。如何理解在社会状态下人被迫(to be forced)遵纪守法却反而更“自由”了?在这里,自由这个词的内涵和外延有所改变。这并非肤浅的文字游戏,因为当一个词被用于超出通常所包含的范围时往往值得警惕,比如后来罗伯斯庇尔号称Jacobins的意愿就是普遍意愿,革命政府是自由的专政。

没有最好的政府。不同国家有不同形式的政府。民主(公民定期集合来行使立法权/全民参与的普选)适合小国(比如希腊的城邦,瑞士)。政体跟人的身体一样都会走向衰老和死亡。卢梭的平等自由思想在法国大革命时被传播,但他本人并不是革命者。卢梭的政治理论对康德和黑格尔都有影响。他的政治理论也很模棱两可,人的道德既是由良心决定的,又是受法律制约的。

德国启蒙运动。Frederick the Great(1712-86)虽然相信上帝但却是个自由思想者(曾邀请伏尔泰去普鲁士)。他对教育的重视使其成为德国启蒙运动领袖之一。

历史哲学的兴起过程中一个重要人物是意大利哲学家Vico(1688-1744)。他认为文明的最开端是当人类被电闪雷鸣驱赶到洞穴里时,他称之为“the age of gods” or “state of the families”;随后第二阶段出现了强者(部落首领)和弱者(农奴),“heroic states”产生,也被称为“the age of the heroes”;第三阶段民众反抗为自己争得更多权益,民主共和时代,“the age of men”。但这一阶段随着平等导致公众精神的衰落和世风日下,最终走向衰亡(比如罗马帝国)。一个循环过去再开始一个新的循环。在西方,基督教的诞生预示着神的时代,中世纪代表英雄的时代,而17世纪(哲学的世纪)是一个崭新的人的时代。他并不认为每个循环都会遵照特定的事件发展,更重要的是不同阶段的特性(mentality)。第一阶段的人被想象和情感(比如恐惧)支配。Vico强调诗歌和神话在研究早期宗教,道德,法律以及社会经济组织中的重要作用。历史让我们看到人的本性。在神的原始时代我们看到人的感观(sense),在英雄时代我们看到人的想象力(imagination),在人的时代我们看到人的理性(reason)。

伏尔泰作为一个历史学家和历史哲学家弱点在于完全忽略中世纪以及之前的历史(认为充满了不可信的谎言)。他的强项在于认识到历史不应该仅限于史实(战争,王公贵族的生活等),而应关注国家强弱的原因以及艺术和工业的启蒙发展。他的历史著作涉及的国家不局限于欧洲,也包括亚洲的一些国家(这也是他的强项之一)。

康德(1724-1804)一生波澜不惊(东普鲁士一个小镇上不出名的大学教授)。57岁(1781)发表《纯粹理性批判》(第一本原创哲学作品)著作等身。作息及其规律。一般把他的哲学思想发展分成两个阶段:前批判阶段和批判阶段。也有人认为早期的科学著作(up to 1755,1756)应该另归为一个阶段。作者认为没这必要,因为对牛顿科学体系的认可一直延续在康德的思想中。

前批判时期是对Leibniz-Wolffian体系的诠释和批判。康德认为形而上学和数学不同,前者研究的对象我们已经有了概念(比如时间虽然很熟悉,可又无法准确定义),后者研究对象的定义是在研究前给出的。再比如欲望(desire)我们可以说出不少关于欲望的真理尽管我们没有清晰的对欲望的定义。简言之,数学开始于定义,但形而上学终止于定义(为了更好的理解事物)。他把知识划分为sensitive knowledge (对应sensitive world,事物呈现出来的样子appearance)和 intellectual knowledge (对应intelligible world,事物本来的真实面目)。经验科学(时空)属于前者,而形而上学(时空的概念不再适用)属于后者。道德的基本原则是从理性延伸出来的(他同意Hume的观点不能把道德建立在感观基础上,Epicurus以及Shaftesbury等的道德观值得批判)。

《纯粹理性批判》形而上学能否给我们确切的答案:关于上帝和人类自由的存在和本质,人是否有不灭的灵魂?
先验知识到底可不可能(存在)?康德的先验知识指的是跟所有经验相关的(而不是跟某些特定经验相关的)。他认为先验知识是存在的(比如数学定理,或者变化一定有原因)。承认了休谟对他的影响。既然可能存在(确实存在于数学和物理学中),康德的下一个问题是先验知识怎么可能存在?如果人的意识是被动的,则无法解释先验知识的存在。假设意识是主动的(不代表意识可以从虚无中创造世界),能够在经验上附加自身的认知(由人的感性和理解能力决定)。康德从哥白尼的日心说得到启发,对于人作为观察者来说,日心说和地心说产生的现象是一样的,后来由于更多的天文现象日心说能更好的解释,所以日心说更接近真理。所以���提出假设“不是知识必须符合对象,而是对象必须符合认识主体的先天认识形式。”

举个例子,如果一个人戴了一副红色的眼镜(假设生下来就如此),他看到的世界就是红色的。那么对他来说有两种可能,第一种他认为世界本来就是红色的,第二种可能是世界是多彩的但他由于某些主观因素而只能看到红色。自然状态下他会选择第一种假设。但当他解释某些现象有困难时可能会考虑第二种假设。他永远无法知道事物真正的颜色是什么,但他知道世界为何呈现出红色(因为他的主观意识/红色眼镜)。

形而上学作为本性/天性(a natural disposition)是有价值的[可能性源于人类理性的本质,寻求对经验认知的知性统一,一种对不同形式的无条件统一(Ideas of an unconditioned unity in different forms)]. 但它不可能成为一门真正的科学(不可能提供关于纯粹可理解的现实的理论知识)。

康德把精神灵魂(心灵),人是自由的,上帝存在这些放在了超越界/信仰的范畴,不再属于知识的对象。康德跟经验主义分道扬镳的地方在于在所有的感官经验中加入了先验(a priori)的元素。

Space is said to be ‘the form of all appearances of the external senses, that is, the subjective condition of sensibility, under which alone external intuition is possible for us.’ 所有外在物体都在空间中。Time is said to be ‘the form of the internal sense, that is, of the intuition of ourselves and of our internal state’. 时间和空间是感性(内感和外感)的直观形式(是先验的,并非从经验产生的概念),但只适用于事物(呈现给人的)外观,并不适用于现实本身。

知识是通过感性(sensibility)和知性(understanding)产生的。自然科学是可能的原因在于经验的对象必须满足特定的先验条件。“the principles of possible experience are then at the same time universal laws of Nature, which can be known a priori. And thus the problem contained in our second question, How is the pure science of Nature possible? has been solved.” (关于对象的)知识因此局限于现象现实(phenomenal reality)。

康德反驳了笛卡尔和Berkeley的唯心主义。只有在感知到外物时才意识到自我。“The consciousness of my own existence is at the same time an immediate consciousness of the existence of other things outside me.”

知性直接对现象作出统一判断(有假设/条件),而理性接受知性的概念和判断,从更高层面上进一步加以统一(去除假设/条件)。纯粹理性有三个层次:灵魂(永久实质性主体),世界(所有因果相连的现象),上帝(绝对完美)。分别对应于心理学,宇宙学和神学。

在康德的哲学里上帝的存在是无法证明的,他批判了前人在证明上帝存在的错误。

实践理性是把理性用于道德实践中。理性的理论功能决定了直觉产生的物体(非理性的其他来源,把感官数据分类)。它的实践功能以理性本身为来源,产生道德选择。大白话来说就是理论理性指向知识,实践理性指向道德选择(若条件允许,选择的付诸行动)。有时康德把实践理性和意志力(will)区别开来,前者影响后者,有时又把两者等同起来。

康德跟那些把道德法律最终建立在人类本质之上的哲学家们分道扬镳。他在《实践理性批判》中说蒙田把道德观建立在教育之上,Epicurus建立在人的(物理)情感之上,Mandeville建立在政治基础上,Hutcheson建立在道德情感上。康德把伦理观/道德法律建立在理性之上。

《道德形而上学的基础》开篇被广为引用。 'It is impossible to conceive of anything in the world, or indeed out of it, which can be called good without qualification save only a good will.' 不合格的善:比如外在拥有(财富等)可能被滥用,超凡的智力/理解力如果被用于犯罪那也不能称之为善。只有好的意愿(a good will)在任何情况下都是好的(不需要考核)。好的意愿是好的,不取决于产生的结果(比如幸福感),它的善来自于意愿本身。好的意愿康德定义为是为了履行职责而行动(act for the sake of duty),而履行职责意味着出于对法律的尊重,而不是出于自身的欲望(desire)或者喜好(inclination)。
康德认为每个理性人/意愿本身就是终点,而这一意愿是道德法律的基础/来源。这就是意愿的自主(autonomy)原则。他的道德观念受到卢梭的影响。

《纯批》中自由是一种反面的可能性(自由的概念没有逻辑上的自相矛盾)。在《实批》中我们只有在自由的条件/概念下才能为了职责而遵守道德规范。自由无法被理论证明,但这一假设对道德体来说又是实际必需的。

知性使法律成为实际现象的先验,使得关于自然界的理论知识成为可能。纯粹理性,在实践过程中把欲望(desire)立法化。而判断(judgment)把情感(处于认知和欲望之间)立法化,判断处于知性和理性中间。第三本《判断力批判》可被视为纯批和实批之间的桥梁。分为美学和目的论两部分。

康德认为美的判断(品味)是主观的(非逻辑):取决于对象对观者引发的情感(愉悦或非愉悦)。康德谈到的美学主要是围绕判断标准的先验性,而不是提供具体的美的判断标准。天才有两个特质:精神(意识的蓬勃生机)和原创性(天才不是教出来的)。

康德的《Opus Postumum》死后出版,未完成的作品。提到了人是连接世界和超越界的桥梁,人的道德生活体现了他的自由,从而也属于超越界。’Man (a being in the world) is at the same time a being which possesses freedom, a property which is outside the causal principles of the world but which nevertheless belongs to man.’ “There is thus a being above the world, namely the spirit of man.”

四五六卷的总结:康德前的欧洲大陆理性主义(笛卡尔,斯宾诺莎,莱布里兹)说明了形而上哲学不可能采用纯数学的推导形式。英国经验主义哲学顶峰休谟旨在阐述理念的起源和形成,或者说人类知识的本质,范围和局限。理性主义哲学家们试图看看把数学方法用于哲学能走多远,经验主义哲学家则试图把经典物理(牛顿物理)方法(实验)用于哲学领域。休谟的哲学体系侧重于分析(相对理性主义来说很少综合)。休谟的关于人的科学这一理念很好地代表了18世纪启蒙运动的精神。某种程度上来说启蒙运动的哲学体现了中产阶级的发展。康德的批判哲学为后来的唯心主义打下基础。他的贡献在于显示了所有可知的属于科学的范畴,而形而上不仅不是科学也没有意义,最多可以提供情绪价值(实际的信仰)。
中世纪哲学着眼于存在(being)的问题,而现代哲学围绕着知识的问题。
192 reviews4 followers
March 12, 2020
This volume is not as crystalline and satisfying as earlier volumes. Highlights include the brief discussion of the physiocrats and philosophes of the French Enlightenment. Copleston's explication of Kant is less illuminating and penetrating and sounds like a Christian apologia (to some extent) of Kant's revolutionary (and deleterious) "Copernican revolution".
Profile Image for Ehab mohamed.
428 reviews96 followers
March 12, 2022
أفضل أجزاء السلسلة على الإطلاق والذي احتلت فيه فلسفة كانط الجانب الأعظم، إذ شغلت أكثر من نصف الكتاب الذي تصل صفحاته في ترجمته العربية إلى الستمائة، وبالرغم من بعض أخطاء الترجمة العربية وبالرغم من سقوط ترجمة أكثر من ثلاثين صفحة- غاية في الأهمية - من النص الإنجليزي في الجزء الخاص بكانط، إلا أن الترجمة جاءت معقولة.
Profile Image for Lee McConnell.
5 reviews1 follower
February 16, 2016
Copleston provides a detailed and (largely) accessible treatment of Kant for intermediate readers of philosophy.
Profile Image for Dan DalMonte.
Author 1 book28 followers
May 29, 2021
I was expecting more of a superficial survey of Kant's philosophy in this volume. Instead, Father Copleston reveals himself to have a deep knowledge of Kant and the intricacies of the debate related to his work. Coplestone discusses key problems and question in relation to Kant, specifically those having to do with the thing in itself. Can we talk of the thing in itself causing phenomena if causation is only supposed to be applied immanently within experience? Do the categories even have meaning when used to think of things in general, apart from the epistemic conditions of sensibility? Copleston handles these issues adroitly. He closes with a discussion of how Kant represents an evolution in philosophy away from being towards epistemology. At the same time, he is sensitive to Kant's continued commitment to a metaphysics through practical reason. Kant is not be taken as a logical positivist.
Profile Image for Bahman Bahman.
Author 3 books242 followers
October 13, 2021
مفصل ترین کتاب تاریخ فلسفه در زبان فارسی به احتمال زیاد تاریخ فلسفه نوشته فردریک کاپلستون است که مرجع درسی دانشجویان فلسفه، و هم مرجع تدریس بسیاری از اساتید آنها، از دوره لیسانس تا دکترا است. دوره نه جلدی تاریخ فلسفه، به قلم چارلز کاپلستون، که به همت عده ای از مترجمان زبده به فارسی ترجمه شده است. مجموعه ای در دسترس خوانندگان فارسی زبان قرار می دهد که تا حد زیادی می توانند آنان را از متن های دیگر بی نیاز سازد، زیرا هدف نگارنده این بوده است که سیر تحول فلسفه را از آغاز تا اواخر قرن بیستم با زبانی ساده و روان برای خواننده تحصیل کرده معمولی بیان کند.
Profile Image for Austin Hoffman.
273 reviews11 followers
May 1, 2018
Read the section on Kant and summary of previous three volumes.

This was a good introduction to Kant’s life and works. I’m still trying to get my head around his metaphysics - perhaps because I don’t share the problems of pure rationalism or empiricism not being one.

I think I understand his ethics a bit more, and judge his moral system as the longest, most complex, convoluted, and complicated way to get back to the golden rule you will ever read.
Profile Image for Shayan Hamraz.
45 reviews5 followers
September 10, 2020
من ورژن قدیمی کتاب که برای انتشارات دانشگاه شریفه و فقط ترجمه بزرگمهر هست رو خواندم شرح جامعی از کانت داره اما مهمترین مشکل کتاب ترجمه است. معادل گذاری‌های کتاب با آنچه مرسوم است بسیاری متفاوت است. اما اگر کسی با ترمینولوژی کانت آشنایی داشته باشه و به پاورقی ها مراجعه کنه دچار مشکل نخواهد شد.
Profile Image for Matt Pitts.
766 reviews76 followers
March 1, 2024
Kant was a big deal, but his work did not at all interest me.

I skipped about 6 chapters because they were not assigned.
Profile Image for Albie.
479 reviews5 followers
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September 14, 2009
History of Philosophy, Volume 6 by Frederick Copleston S.J. (1993)
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