Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental History

Studies in Environment and History

by Alan Mikhail

In one of the first ever environmental histories of the Ottoman Empire, Alan Mikhail examines relations between the empire and its most lucrative province of Egypt. Based on both the local records of various towns and villages in rural Egypt and the imperial orders of the Ottoman state, this book charts how changes in the control of natural resources fundamentally altered the nature of Ottoman imperial sovereignty in Egypt and throughout the empire. In revealing how Egyptian peasants were able to use their knowledge and experience of local environments to force the hand of the imperial state, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt tells a story of the connections of empire stretching from canals in the Egyptian countryside to the palace in Istanbul, from the Anatolian forest to the shores of the Red Sea, and from a plague flea's bite to the fortunes of one of the most powerful states of the early modern world.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Egypt, Middle East, Africa, Nature, Environment

382 pages, Paperback

First published April 11, 2011

Reviews

[Sara Razek · Rating 4 out of 5]

Mikhail did a great job of explaining how Egypt, contrary to nationalist historiography, flourished as a state under Ottoman rule, since the Ottomans relied on the local experience of Egyptian peasants in managing the country’s irrigation system and natural resources without over-stretching them. They also successfully integrated Egypt in an imperial system of exchange networks where Egypt provided foodstuffs to İstanbul and other Ottoman provinces and obtained wood in return to make up for its shortage in energy. The exploitation of Egyptian peasants and Egypt at large, which, for Mikhail, is synonymous with a centralized form of government, started in the late eighteenth century and culminated with the advent of Mehmet Ali who oversaw a shift from Ottoman reliance on local knowledge to a more centralized, bureaucratic and tyrannical form of government in which peasants became mere figures to be exploited in carrying out the Pasha’s mega projects; a trend that continued in Egypt well into the twentieth century. Mikhail is deeply concerned with the human price Egyptians had to pay for the creation of a modern state that more often then not endorsed the systematic abuse of its peasants for the benefit of a select few.

Two loopholes in this argument, however, are Mikhail’s tendency to romanticize rural life under Ottoman rule. Although peasants were semi-autonomous in a way (reliance on local expertise was central to Ottoman governance and not exclusively applied in Egypt), still they had to contend with the oppressive demands of the imperial seat in providing foodstuffs to İstanbul. Multizem also levied heavy taxes on peasants and they were certainly not collected in a benign manner. The author also swiftly moves from one pattern of Ottoman governance to another during the late eighteenth century without preparing the readers for the reasons behind such a change. Was the Ottoman Empire losing its control over some/all of its provinces? Was it responding to European pressure? How Mehmet Ali accelerated this change? And why did water management become suddenly despotic towards the end of the eighteenth century? The result is that one feels there is a sudden breakage in what otherwise reads like a smooth narrative.

All points considered, Mikhail’s book is groundbreaking in its rendition of Egypt’s environmental history under Ottoman rule, and for the archival material he has analyzed to present a picture of Egypt during the long eighteenth century. Hats off!

[J.M. Hushour · Rating 5 out of 5]

Like Sam White's book reviewed somewhere here, this is an environmental history which similarly centers on imperial provisioning systems and ecological stuff. Taking a different tact, Mikhail looks at the rural, "hyperlocalist" (his term) natural resource management of Ottoman Egypt. Basically, peasants had so much institutional knowledge of irrigation and its care that the Ottoman center delegated the care of this ecological niche to them. The peasants thus had quite a bit of agency, even abandoning villages and waterworks as a form of protest. This is neat, but not particularly surprising given the scads of material published on how the Ottomans essentially relegated everything to local authorities. He also tries to elucidate a shift between this system and a "despotic" shift under Mehmet Ali which saw Egyptian interests turn inward, away from the Empire, which resulted in the ruination of ecological management.

[Akakiy · Rating 5 out of 5]

Alan Mikhail’s Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt is an important and original contribution to both Ottoman history and environmental studies. The book argues that the natural world was not a passive setting in early modern Egypt but an active force that shaped political authority, agricultural systems, and everyday life. Mikhail shows convincingly that the relationship between the Ottoman state and the Nile’s landscape created a form of governance that cannot be understood without considering ecological conditions.

The study explores several key themes. One major focus is the Nile River and the ways its annual floods, droughts, and shifting waterways influenced taxation, infrastructure, and agricultural productivity. Mikhail also highlights the significance of animals in the imperial economy. Horses, oxen, donkeys and even pests become central actors that affected labor, transportation, and the stability of local communities. Environmental crises such as epidemics, crop failures, and locust invasions are presented as turning points that redirected political decisions and reshaped relations between the empire and its subjects.

One of the strengths of the book is its use of rich archival material to reconstruct the interactions among peasants, provincial administrators, and the natural environment. Mikhail shows how irrigation systems, canal maintenance, and land management were deeply political practices. These activities required negotiation and cooperation across different layers of society, revealing how environmental challenges became moments of both conflict and collaboration.

Overall, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt stands out for its clear argument, vivid examples, and innovative approach. It is a valuable read for anyone interested in environmental history, Middle Eastern studies, or the complex ways nature and political power interact.

[Jay · Rating 3 out of 5]

Narrow scope and repetitive. Reads like an undergrad’s term paper.