I recently finished a collection of horror stories masquerading as psychology experiments, "Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the 20th Century", by Lauren Slater. Here's what I thought.
First of all, the title is lame. It implies that the book is about Skinner, when in fact only the first chapter is. Each chapter is an essay on a different psychologist, telling us where they came from (literally and figuratively), what their Big Idea/Experiment was, and who was offended by it.
And many of them have plenty to offend. Skinner bragged about keeping his daughter in a box. On closer inspection it turns out to have been more of a grandiose crib, and Skinner comes off as using intentional controversy to try to make himself sound more daring and original than he was.
More interesting, to me, was Milgram. His most famous experiment gave rise to the idea of "six degrees of separation", but his best and most disturbing one found that, if ordered to by a figure of authority, well over half the general population will continue to follow orders (in this case, increasing the voltage applied to another human being well past the marked safety levels), even if it means killing someone (after the experiment was over, they would discover it had been staged, the apparent victim an actor). Remember this, next time you are in a large crowd: most of these people would kill you, if ordered to by the right kind of authority figure, in the right circumstance.
In some cases Slater inserts herself into the narrative. Rosenhan's experiment in the 1970's discovered that pyschiatrists at eight out of eight institutions could not tell that a bogus patient with a single fictitious symptom (saying that they heard a voice saying, "thud"), was sane. They were all checked in, in some cases medicated (they were given previous training on how to palm and discard the pills), and in a few cases had to escape when they could not convince their "doctors" to release them. Slater decided to repeat the experiment, herself, to see if anything had changed. Her discoveries? They treat you nicer than they did in the 70's, and they don't check you in. But they still believed the same story, and all gave her prescription antidepressants and/or antipsychotics. Every hospital dealing in physical illness has to learn how to detect "narc seekers" or "Munchausens" who fake illness. Apparently their mental illness counterparts have not learned to yet.
Nearly every chapter has some disturbing topic: cognitive dissonance (why people can believe more strenuously in ideas, the less evidence there is for them), drug addiction, the history of lobotomies, how to implant a false memory. By the time I had finished the book, I had come to a new hypothesis to explain Rosenhan's (and Slater's) results.
It's not that diagnosing mental illness is impossible. It's that so few people are mentally well, that a minimum standard of rationality would be far too high to set the bar. People remember what they're told to remember by others. They suspend judgment on moral matters if somebody else is there to judge for them. They perceive reality in the way that gives least conflict with their beliefs, rather than altering beliefs to conflict least with reality.
There are some optimistic spots. Alexander found that, while rats restrained in a small, bare cage will self-administer heroin rather than eat, until they starve to death, this is more a reflection of the cage than the drug. Put a thoroughly addicted rat into a large pen, brightly lit, with other rats, fresh cedar chips every day, and small alcoves where pregnant females can bear their young, and you get a different result. Rats prefer water, to heroin. Does this mean addiction is a sign of an impoverished environment rather than the power of addiction? Or just more evidence that rats are different than people, mentally? (or at least, we hope so)
Occasionally Slater's opinions get in the way. In a chapter on Elizabeth Loftus, the only female pyschologist profiled, Slater comes off as a bit catty, perhaps better able to tolerate (or admire) eccentricity in a male researcher than a female. But by and large, she uses her writing talent to turn a potentially dry topic (psychological research) into the sort of short story that leaves a tightness in your chest afterwards, and disturbs your sleep. More thrilling than horror stories, because the dark underbelly of the ("sane", or at least typical) human psyche is all around you. Read it, if you dare.