A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America

Comparative Studies in Religion and Society

by Michael Barkun

American society has changed dramatically since "A Culture of Conspiracy" was first published in 2001. In this revised and expanded edition, Michael Barkun delves deeper into America's conspiracy sub-culture, exploring the rise of 9/11 conspiracy theories, the "birther" controversy surrounding Barack Obama's American citizenship, and how the conspiracy landscape has changed with the rise of the Internet and other new media.What do UFO believers, Christian millennialists, and right-wing conspiracy theorists have in common? According to Michael Barkun in this fascinating yet disturbing book, quite a lot. It is well known that some Americans are obsessed with conspiracies. The Kennedy assassination, the Oklahoma City bombing, and the 2001 terrorist attacks have all generated elaborate stories of hidden plots. What is far less known is the extent to which conspiracist worldviews have recently become linked in strange and unpredictable ways with other "fringe" notions such as a belief in UFOs, Nostradamus, and the Illuminati. Unraveling the extraordinary genealogies and permutations of these increasingly widespread ideas, Barkun shows how this web of urban legends has spread among subcultures on the Internet and through mass media, how a new style of conspiracy thinking has recently arisen, and how this phenomenon relates to larger changes in American culture. This book, written by a leading expert on the subject, is the most comprehensive and authoritative examination of contemporary American conspiracism to date.Barkun discusses a range of material-involving inner-earth caves, government black helicopters, alien abductions, secret New World Order cabals, and much more-that few realize exists in our culture. Looking closely at the manifestations of these ideas in a wide range of literature and source material from religious and political literature, to New Age and UFO publications, to popular culture phenomena such as The X-Files, and to websites, radio programs, and more, Barkun finds that America is in the throes of an unrivaled period of millenarian activity. His book underscores the importance of understanding why this phenomenon is now spreading into more mainstream segments of American culture.

Genres: Nonfiction, Politics, History, Sociology, Religion, Conspiracy Theories, The United States Of America

320 pages, Kindle Edition

First published January 1, 2003

Reviews

[Jeb Card · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent examination of the fluidity of conspiracy thinking and politics in American society. Barkun shows how seemingly unrelated concepts, if they are considered "forbidden" can crosscut and produce bizarre combinations (antisemitism, populist right wing and New Age left wing politics, UFOs, and subterranean lizard people shouldn't have much in common, and yet ...). His study of the development of Reptilian lore was particularly useful for me, and has pushed me into making some links of my own between pop science, pulp fiction, and conspiracy theory that I had never seen before. Solidly recommended.

[Tobias · Rating 4 out of 5]

An interesting account of how different conspiracy theories melded into a unified subculture of conspiracy in the 1990s, in which conspiracy theorists have blended once-separate conspiracy theories (UFOs, Masons, Jews, New World Order, etc.) into a super conspiracy, what Barkun calls "improvisational millennialism."

[Brandon · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is by far the best, most engaging monograph on conspiratorial thinking in the US context that I've ever come across. It is both informationally dense and incredibly fun and readable thanks to its authorial clarity and fascinating subject matter. If only Barkin could update this volume to include recent developments like Trumpian messianism, QAnon, the anti-LGBTQ "grooming" moral panic, and election denial, it would be essential reading for everyone trying to wrap their heads around the strange times in which we live. As it stands, it connects the historical and ideological dots in ways that allow the reader to fill in these current gaps in ways that are unfailingly illuminating and, in my view, deeply therapeutic in allowing us to understand (and, hopefully, better combat) conspiracism as it exists today.

[Sami Eerola · Rating 5 out of 5]

A great study on American conspiracy theories and the reasons why people believe in them. This one sign that this book is based on good research is that the author predicts the explosion of conspiracy theories to mane stream culture and the dangers that it could bring to a democracy.

The primary reason for believing in conspiracy theories is the American evangelical millennial tradition that is embedded in American culture. This explained why here in Europe less people believe in conspiracy theories and why they are not as elaborate as American versions, even when many conspiracy theories originated in Europe.

[Tachikoma22 · Rating 5 out of 5]

Still got doubts?

The final handbook to origins and evolution of the nonsense that affects our present, embodied our paranoia and with which, sooner or later, we had to deal with in first person.

Mandatory read on the shelf of everyone willing to start "thinking with their own head"

[Brian · Rating 3 out of 5]

All in all, a fascinating spotlight on a surreal dark corner of American culture.

They really are out there. And they are strange...very strange.

[Alan Fuller · Rating 5 out of 5]

I have long been a Bible prophecy fan. I understood that Antichrist was to be a dictator that would rule the world. Sometimes his kingdom was referred to as the New World order. I didn't pay much attention to all the associated conspiracy theories that emerged in the late 80s and 90s since my attention turned to theological understanding. Wild ideas like Qanon and those behind violent militias like those on January 6 got my attention. Those ideas lie outside what most people consider reality. I was looking for a book that explained the connections between millennialism and conspiracy theories. I found it. I highly recommend the book to those who are interested in the subject.

"Because the disparate elements can be endlessly recombined, and because traditional religious authority is deemed to have been co-opted by the forces of evil, every practitioner of improvisational millennialism becomes his or her own millenarian entrepreneur." p.233

The New World Order is related to Antichrist and becomes a connection point between UFOs, militias, mind control, and other occult or political beliefs.

[tonia peckover · Rating 5 out of 5]

(All books get 5 stars). Fascinating book. It was written in the early 2000s, but all the conspiracies we see today are just variations of the old ones, so the book remains timely. If you are interested in why evangelicals are so ripe for conspiracy thinking, or why there’s so much interest in UFOs again, or why politics is so impossible to entangle from conspiracy suspicions, this is a helpful overview. Barkun explains how millennialism, stigmatized knowledge, suspicion of authority and paranoid thinking get braided together and regurgitated into ever more complicated forms with the help of the Internet.

[Scott · Rating 5 out of 5]

Ironic that one conspiracy theory: that the government (FEMA) has plans to setup concentration/internment camps, a theory that many right wingers now espouse, was actually based in some reality. It’s just that the plans were originally drawn up by *conservatives* in the 60’s to use against liberals who were advocating for civil rights and opposing the Vietnam war…

This covered a lot of ground: Lizard people, UFO’s, racist right-wing Christians, militias, hollow earth theory, Illuminati, anti-Semitism, Obama birthers, 9/11, etc…

So many conspiracy theories are rip offs of pulp science fiction, or old anti-Semitic Nazi tropes like the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, or American nativist hysteria about immigration in the 1800s, and are just recycled and embellished (often in very contradictory ways) over the years.

All the freaking out about the Masons and Illuminati has roots in religious fundamentalists and monarchists disliking how the Masons and Illuminati were fans of science and reason and openly challenged the monarchy and the church. Seems like they should be revered as heroes and ahead of their time, instead of reviled.

It was interesting to read about the history and how separate “event based” conspiracies (JFK, UFOs) finally started to coalesce in the Internet age to meld together and form all-encompassing “super conspiracies” which lump all sorts of different conspiracies together and purport to find all sorts of hidden links that join them together. Foreshadowing for QAnon.

Also, some of the final chapters are eerily prescient about the mounting violence from conspiracy minded right-wingers, as we all saw on Jan 6 2021.

It’s also Ironic how many modern American conspiracy believers fear some dystopian future where shadowy cabals of billionaires take over the world in a strict dictatorship, yet meanwhile, they vote for the Republican Party who’s openly hostile to democracy and who are completely bought & paid for by billionaires, and who’ve already attempted a coup once and have been feverishly working to strip our rights away from us.

I just wish the author had been written this book more recently, so they could encompass the truly insane and violent QAnon stuff that’s been going around lately. So many passages in the final chapters were spent worrying about violence, and what happens when people cannot even agree on objective reality anymore…. Which is basically where we are now, as a country.

The future is looking like it’s gonna keep getting more and more dystopian. Pass the popcorn.

[Phillip · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book added a new phrase to my idiolect, "stigmatized knowledge".

The author of this book is a sociologist who wrote a book about protestant Christian skin heads. He said that he gathered and read all of the literature he could find while researching that book. A surprise for him was that conspiracy theories, including the existence of UFOs and otherworldly aliens, were a staple of this literature. He used the material on conspiracies to write the current book.

The author says he doesn't know if UFOs or aliens are real. He doesn't care. His purpose is to describe a sociological phenomenon. His book is quite interesting. He poses the many ways that people become outsiders. When a person becomes an outsider he or she no longer wants to evaluate events using the disciplines of thought that are recognized by mainstream society. Alternative theories and approaches to reasoning become desirable simply because they are stigmatized knowledge. By the end of the book the author shows how varying conspiracy theories feed each other to convince believers of a host of conspiracies that initially have nothing to do with one another.

[Eric · Rating 4 out of 5]

I picked this up to prepare and research for a class I'm teaching this fall focusing on the rhetoric of conspiracy theories. A fascinating (as well as frightening and frustrating) read. His terms and categories make it easier to understand and digest the nebulous and contradictory narratives given in these circles. I was a little disappointed in the 9/11 chapter as it felt a little more general and summary of their responses. Maybe it's just indicative of the (relatively, at least when this was written) recent nature of the attacks.

His final chapter delves into the possible consequences of the permeability of these fringe ideas and mainstream culture and his caution certainly seems merited. I'm reminded of former Colorado gubernatorial candidate Dan Mayes' assertion that an attempt to introduce a bike sharing program in Denver was part of a UN takeover plan.That being one of the tamer examples I can think of. Certainly worth a look for anyone hoping to get a general look at the evolution of conspiracy theories in the US.

[Patrick · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fascinating examination of the overlap between various UFO and New Age literatures and communities with fascist thought. Given the state of things now, with Alex Jones having press credentials and #fakenews on the rise, it's hard not to wince whenever Barkun assures readers that these ideas are not part of the mainstream.

[Buffy · Rating 4 out of 5]

I read the second edition. I give it 4 stars because there is so much left behind since the last edition. Needs a third!

“Bizarre beliefs have broken into the open before. Indeed, new orthodoxies can emerge out of just such ideological undergrowth, sometimes with devastating effects.”

[Patricia Roberts-Miller · Rating 4 out of 5]

Excellent summary, almost an encyclopedia.

[Ruth · Rating 4 out of 5]

Informative and interesting. It feels too short, however.

[Henning · Rating 3 out of 5]

Rent deskriptiv skildring av olika konspirationsteorier som florerar i USA. Barkun följer grundsatsen att konspirationsteorier i sig är marginalfenomen och uttryck för "stigmatiserad kunskap". På så sätt blir de aktörer han tar fasta på i princip uteslutande ett gäng vansinniga kufar. Analysen känns ibland ganska tunn. Internet, globalisering och misstro mot makten har gjort det enklare för galna idéer att få någon sorts fotfäste, om dock i mer utspädd och kaotiskt uppblandad form. No shit, sherlock.

För mig är den intressantaste frågan är om det konspirationsteoretiska tänkandet i vidare mening verkligen blivit marginaliserat, och hur och när det i så fall skedde. Boken publicerades 2013, tre år innan presidentvalet, och Donald Trumps "birtherism" nämns bara i en paragraf eller två. Istället faller Barkun tillbaka på en förenklad verklighetsbild där dagens mainstreamtänkande eller åtminstone det tänkande som besitter makten präglas av vetenskaplig rigör. Historiskt förblir detta så kallade sunda förnuft dock en anomali.

[Cameron Nielsen · Rating 5 out of 5]

EVERYTHING IS CONNECTED—or rather, there's a lot of overlap between believers in One World conspiracy theories, UFOs, end-times prophecy, alternative medicine, channeling, flat earth, far-right revisionist history... Barkun helps us understand the appeal of "stigmatized knowledge" and how seemingly disparate theories interact to form their own epistemic subculture, challenging the very shared reality we try to maintain as a society. More relevant than ever after 2016, this is an essential study for anyone interested in how "fringe" ideas develop and percolate into the mainstream, including cultural historians and religious studies scholars.

(I read the second edition, which has added chapters bringing the book's analysis up to the conspiracy theories surrounding the first presidential term of Barack Obama. These chapters seem to have been added in a bit of a rush, and could have used a bit more editing for style and typos, but are nonetheless very informative.)

[Brian Griffith · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is much more analysis than story telling, but I found it helpful. Barkun wades through our blizzards of rapidly mutating conspiracy theories, classifying species of creative urban myths as they arise. What are the common presumptions of conspiratorial thinking? Barkun sees three:
(1) Nothing happens by accident
(2) Nothing is as it seems
(3) Everything is connected
Furthermore, you can, if you dare to trust your own instincts and intellect, figure out what's really going on behind the curtain.
These assumptions may suggest a libertarian approach to finding the hidden cause of almost anything. But for an alternative theory to truly become a conspiracy theory, the theorist must also "view history as controlled by massive demonic forces."
It strikes me that this is the very opposite of assuming that God rules the world, and all that happens is ultimately for the Lord's good purpose.

[Raughley Nuzzi · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was a great book that gave insight into the mindset required for belief in conspiracies great and small. The history and currency of conspiratorial belief is fascinating and my only criticism of this book is that it was published in 2006. Barkun missed out on the apotheosis of conspiracy in the campaign and election of President Trump. While the book touches on 9/11, it was written in an era before the internet had properly come into its own--before pizzagate or wikileaks or the birther movement or the Deep State or Russian collusion. Point in case: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/op...

This topic is long overdue for a new edition, but I highly recommend it to anyone interested in political current events or in fringe belief groups.

[Cal Godot · Rating 5 out of 5]

Conspiracy theories are everywhere, and have become especially prevalent and dangerously influential as a result of the internet and social media. Barkun analyzes not only the history of conspiracy thinking in America but also provides a clear illustration of how they develop and grow from obscurity into widespread recognition and even acceptance. He demonstrates a kind of pattern that all conspiracy theories seem to follow, and identifies general traits these theories follow. A thoroughly academic take on the subject, the book demands close reading and examination of its ideas. Definitely not a "quick read" or even entertaining, but a rigorous and well-sourced work that should be on the shelf of every skeptic, contemporary historian, and those rare conspiracy-minded individuals who are capable of critical analysis.

[Too Many Toys · Rating 3 out of 5]

Readers will find that it reads more like a research paper than a novel. This is a well done book. Readers will find that it reads more like a research paper than a novel. While some may say, 'well what did you expect?', they should take a look at the book When Prophecy Fails. It is a similar research based book (from the 50's) that manages to follow a story line in a way that is more readable and engaging. This book presents a relatively balanced point of view although the amount of repetition of information became a bit annoying. While the authors surely had a point of view, they maintained a level of objectivity that supported the credibility of the work. While in hindsight I consider it a worthwhile read, had I known what I was getting into, I would have skipped it.

[Rodrigo Quinan · Rating 4 out of 5]

Leitura importante sobre o tema. O autor pode ter verborragias e falhar em ser interessante, afinal, é um livro técnico dum acadêmico, e só há teoria no inicio e na conclusão do livro. Mas seu meio tem descrições detalhadas de diversos movimentos e ocorrências fringe ocorridas desde o meio do Séc XX com seitas do fim do mundo até as conspirações bizarras sobre 2012 e a nacionalidade do Obama. Ajuda bastante a entender como chegamos nesse ponto no mundo atual, onde toda essas ideias bizarras e perigosas viraram mainstream. Bom material pra citação.

[Stefano · Rating 4 out of 5]

A brilliant if somewhat sesquipedalian overview of modern conspiracy culture in the United States.

The author's knowledge and authority is reflected in the precision of his references and the clear lucidity of his argumentation. Nonetheless, the book is at times hard to read by nature of being too encyclopedic. I recommend this book to anyone who wants a deep dive in the subject matter, but as an introduction or even a light read, this is a bit much.

[Patrick Bair · Rating 4 out of 5]

Not particularly well written, the accumulation of informative is nevertheless worthwhile. I wish Barkun had spent more time discussing the psychology of those people who perceive every day conspiracies, but who don't necessarily connect them to a larger world view, so-called "closed systems of belief."

[Drew · Rating 4 out of 5]

An influential but dated academic study on Conspiracy Culture in North American society. Maybe, a bit too focused on specific segments of conspiracy culture, particularly the militant right-wing Millenarian aspect to qualify as a general analysis of the topic, but it is still a worthwhile read when examined through that limited scope.

[Ivy Schulte · Rating 4 out of 5]

Fascinating view of American conspiracy, but one which falls victim to the classic problem of conspiracy studies: taking a just-below-the-surface look at a problem that is rooted in the American political economy since its very inception.

[Bradley Kale · Rating 3 out of 5]

So the roots of most conspiracy theories: prejudice and profitable fantasy.

[Lucas Coia · Rating 4 out of 5]

Overall, Barkun's work is effective and highly relevant. However, for my taste, a bit too descriptive; more analysis would have been welcome.

[Jukka Häkkinen · Rating 4 out of 5]

Selkeästi kirjoitettu ja ajatuksia herättävä kirja salaliittoteorioiden ja uushenkisen ajattelun risteytymisestä Yhdysvalloissa.

[David]

hmm. seems like were fucked