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Pericles of Athens
The definitive biography of the legendary first citizen of Athens
Pericles has the rare distinction of giving his name to an entire period of history, embodying what has often been taken as the golden age of the ancient Greek world. Periclean Athens witnessed tumultuous political and military events, and achievements of the highest order in philosophy, drama, poetry, oratory, and architecture. Pericles of Athens is the first book in decades to reassess the life and legacy of one of the greatest generals, orators, and statesmen of the classical world. In this compelling critical biography, Vincent Azoulay takes a fresh look at both the classical and modern reception of Pericles, recognizing his achievements as well as his failings. From Thucydides and Plutarch to Voltaire and Hegel, ancient and modern authors have questioned Pericles's relationship with democracy and Athenian society. This is the enigma that Azoulay investigates in this groundbreaking book. Pericles of Athens offers a balanced look at the complex life and afterlife of the legendary first citizen of Athens.
Pericles has the rare distinction of giving his name to an entire period of history, embodying what has often been taken as the golden age of the ancient Greek world. Periclean Athens witnessed tumultuous political and military events, and achievements of the highest order in philosophy, drama, poetry, oratory, and architecture. Pericles of Athens is the first book in decades to reassess the life and legacy of one of the greatest generals, orators, and statesmen of the classical world. In this compelling critical biography, Vincent Azoulay takes a fresh look at both the classical and modern reception of Pericles, recognizing his achievements as well as his failings. From Thucydides and Plutarch to Voltaire and Hegel, ancient and modern authors have questioned Pericles's relationship with democracy and Athenian society. This is the enigma that Azoulay investigates in this groundbreaking book. Pericles of Athens offers a balanced look at the complex life and afterlife of the legendary first citizen of Athens.
312 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 2010
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October 27, 2020
In Pericles of Athens, Vincent Azoulay has offered humanity two valuable threads in one well-woven book. The obvious gift is image revealed in the weft of Pericles' life in Athens, balancing his strengths and weaknesses, his tendency to placate the populous and then to offer vision, his strategic thinking and his reactionary moments. For that alone we could be greatly thankful. But perhaps the second gift, while more subtle, is the more valuable. It is the warp of history as Pericles' reputation was transformed by cultural context, making his character appear to change even as the life's story lay unchanged for thousands of years. Then it is the ideological and political use of that story over time in ways that presented wildly varying portraits of our protagonist. This second gift on any topic of history is usually hard won through many years of study. With that effort we earn the self-awareness that each of us sees history tinted, not by the dyes chosen by the first historian, but by the light in the cultural room where we live, and by the glasses we choose to wear at the moment. That self-awareness can come quickly to the thoughtful reader now in any age if they have Azoulay's book. Then this understanding can be applied to all that comes their way from the ages. Reading the story of Pericles in Thucydides first from my father's shelf as a child I smiled at the Hero. I can still smile with admiration towards him, but now with a much greater clarity of who he was, and of my own situation as a reader of history. Thank you Vincent Azoulay!
December 22, 2025
Forse meno appassionante dell'altro saggio che ho letto di Azoulay, ma approfondito e critico nel rivedere e collazionare le fonti, così come nello spiegare l'eclissi fino al XIX secolo e la successiva fortuna della figura dello statista ateniese. E alla fine, sì: il secolo di Pericle merita pienamente il suo nome. Nessun altro della Grecia classica gli va vicino per lucidità, visione sistemica e strategica; e nessun democratico per avere reso sostanziale l'applicazione della democrazia in una polis.
November 9, 2022
說真的，還是猜不太透上海三聯的賣書策略，上次那本《中世紀的人們》是這樣，這本《伯里克利》也是，不宣傳，也不給什麼資料，出了就擺在那邊等伯樂，是嫌錢太多嗎？還是是因為有政府資金就沒差....但有心的讀者是可以碰碰運氣啦，這套“經典人文書庫”真的頗多冷門但有用的好書，翻譯品質就聽天由命吧！
《伯里克利：偉人考驗下的雅典民主》，作者是法國學者Vincent Azoulay，這邊可以感受到跨語言的問題，資料還真難找。稍微看一下，是一位年輕的古典學者，主修古代政治學、色諾芬等，本書是他頗著名的作品，有被譯為英文。中文譯本則是按照法文轉譯過來的。
這本著作跟一般的大眾傳記不同，作者旨在分析探討伯里克利，而非單純陳述其人生，是我最欣賞的部分。首先，本書分為兩部分，前半段按照不同的題目，作者詳細向讀者剖析傳主的事業、人格、在歷史上的影響等，非常有其獨到見解；後半段更特別，Azoulay告訴我們伯里克利這一兩千年來人們是怎樣看待他的，相當有意思。
作者分析後的伯里克利給我的感覺是一個走上鋼索上的權力者，表面很強大，但其實也隨時就可能失去一切。他跟同時代的僭主及晚一點羅馬皇帝相差甚遠，遑論後世的獨裁者。伯里克利的權力是建立在他憑著絕妙修辭術的口才贏得的平民支持跟辛苦建立的戰功之上。但前者我們都知道，被勒龐稱之為“烏合之眾”的人民翻臉跟翻書一樣快的，多少雅典名將政客轉眼被放逐，史有明載。而伯里克利本身也不是像亞歷山大、凱撒那樣的擅用兵者，他的很多戰功其實都是佔了朋友便宜，或沾光來的。所以，他必須小心翼翼，如履薄冰，一切都要符合雅典政壇的規則，也要能夠討好到他的核心支持者。當然，如果伯里克利僅止於此的話，他不過是個民粹煽動者，沒啥好討論的。事實上這位雅典的統治者是配的上偉大政治家的稱號，雖然他的評價常常變換不定(這是本書後半段討論的範疇)。伯里克利高明之處，在於他懂得利用時勢，胸有定見，能夠運用口才手腕引導民眾走向他指引的目標。人家常說雅典古典黃金時代是“伯里克利的世紀”，但其實是他造就了這一切還是反過來，很難這樣斬釘截鐵。就像雅典的帝國主義，在打完波希戰爭後，就已經開始成形，也許伯里克利助長或者讓它制度化，但我們很難反論說沒有他就不會出現；同理，雅典的衰弱在伯羅奔尼撒戰爭開始時就已注定，民主的激進化也是潮流的趨勢，或許伯里克利在之中扮演了重要的角色，但過分的誇大就失之客觀了。但不論如何，今天吾人在歷史上所見的，是那位謹慎細微，雖不無缺點，但又能夠帶領國家走在正道上的魅力領袖，擁有至高權力又不至於濫用而失去平衡的政治家。
Azoulay在書的開始引用了法國政論家Rivarol的一段話：能否成為偉人，其實就像能否成為名人一樣；要靠旁人的嘴，他的偉大才得以存在、延續。而這就是本書後半篇的主旨：伯里克利身後的評價。Benedetto Croce說“一切史都是當代史”，這句話用在傳主身上再合適不過了。關於伯里克利，不論是同樣古典時代的史家還是之後的學者，都是依照自己的利益跟立場去評論，在保皇派的眼中，他是個十惡不赦的激進民主份子；在某些菁英派看來，此人也難得好評。不過我個人認為最妙的還是納粹黨徒，他們既崇拜斯巴達的軍國主義，也欣賞伯里克利的“領袖魅力”，讚同羅馬的尚武風格跟世界主義，完全無視於其本身內涵跟自己的意識形態有多格格不入，一整個實用主義。作者引用了一個段子描述伯里克利黃泉下有多在意自己的“歷史定位”，不過我猜他要是知道實情可能就能釋懷了吧。
雖然今天我們在歷史課本上可以看到伯里克利的名字，但他的事蹟功業其實有很長的時間都在云裡霧裡，常常人們都弄不清楚此人真正的位置在何方。這也是作者在一開始敘述其為何這樣撰寫本書的原因，要在古代留下來那些多少帶著偏見的史料中爬梳出一個“接近真實”面貌的伯里克利。這也是我極度讚賞本書的地方。或許這不是什麼創新，但卻是一種具有研究精神的撰寫，或許我們已不缺再一本，但更希望看到是言之有物的著作。最後要稱讚的是譯者，如果沒有他出色的工作，流暢的文筆跟字句的完整再現，原書再好也是枉然。
今天我們討論伯里克利其實還是深具意義的，在這個全球民主正在走向崩壞的年代，人們對政治冷感，公信力走向最低值，甚至鼓吹威權的聲囂塵上，究竟人們需要的是什麼？或許我們不需要凱撒、奧古斯都等帝王，可是當有一位伯里克利出現時，你能慧眼識英雄嗎？
《伯里克利：偉人考驗下的雅典民主》，作者是法國學者Vincent Azoulay，這邊可以感受到跨語言的問題，資料還真難找。稍微看一下，是一位年輕的古典學者，主修古代政治學、色諾芬等，本書是他頗著名的作品，有被譯為英文。中文譯本則是按照法文轉譯過來的。
這本著作跟一般的大眾傳記不同，作者旨在分析探討伯里克利，而非單純陳述其人生，是我最欣賞的部分。首先，本書分為兩部分，前半段按照不同的題目，作者詳細向讀者剖析傳主的事業、人格、在歷史上的影響等，非常有其獨到見解；後半段更特別，Azoulay告訴我們伯里克利這一兩千年來人們是怎樣看待他的，相當有意思。
作者分析後的伯里克利給我的感覺是一個走上鋼索上的權力者，表面很強大，但其實也隨時就可能失去一切。他跟同時代的僭主及晚一點羅馬皇帝相差甚遠，遑論後世的獨裁者。伯里克利的權力是建立在他憑著絕妙修辭術的口才贏得的平民支持跟辛苦建立的戰功之上。但前者我們都知道，被勒龐稱之為“烏合之眾”的人民翻臉跟翻書一樣快的，多少雅典名將政客轉眼被放逐，史有明載。而伯里克利本身也不是像亞歷山大、凱撒那樣的擅用兵者，他的很多戰功其實都是佔了朋友便宜，或沾光來的。所以，他必須小心翼翼，如履薄冰，一切都要符合雅典政壇的規則，也要能夠討好到他的核心支持者。當然，如果伯里克利僅止於此的話，他不過是個民粹煽動者，沒啥好討論的。事實上這位雅典的統治者是配的上偉大政治家的稱號，雖然他的評價常常變換不定(這是本書後半段討論的範疇)。伯里克利高明之處，在於他懂得利用時勢，胸有定見，能夠運用口才手腕引導民眾走向他指引的目標。人家常說雅典古典黃金時代是“伯里克利的世紀”，但其實是他造就了這一切還是反過來，很難這樣斬釘截鐵。就像雅典的帝國主義，在打完波希戰爭後，就已經開始成形，也許伯里克利助長或者讓它制度化，但我們很難反論說沒有他就不會出現；同理，雅典的衰弱在伯羅奔尼撒戰爭開始時就已注定，民主的激進化也是潮流的趨勢，或許伯里克利在之中扮演了重要的角色，但過分的誇大就失之客觀了。但不論如何，今天吾人在歷史上所見的，是那位謹慎細微，雖不無缺點，但又能夠帶領國家走在正道上的魅力領袖，擁有至高權力又不至於濫用而失去平衡的政治家。
Azoulay在書的開始引用了法國政論家Rivarol的一段話：能否成為偉人，其實就像能否成為名人一樣；要靠旁人的嘴，他的偉大才得以存在、延續。而這就是本書後半篇的主旨：伯里克利身後的評價。Benedetto Croce說“一切史都是當代史”，這句話用在傳主身上再合適不過了。關於伯里克利，不論是同樣古典時代的史家還是之後的學者，都是依照自己的利益跟立場去評論，在保皇派的眼中，他是個十惡不赦的激進民主份子；在某些菁英派看來，此人也難得好評。不過我個人認為最妙的還是納粹黨徒，他們既崇拜斯巴達的軍國主義，也欣賞伯里克利的“領袖魅力”，讚同羅馬的尚武風格跟世界主義，完全無視於其本身內涵跟自己的意識形態有多格格不入，一整個實用主義。作者引用了一個段子描述伯里克利黃泉下有多在意自己的“歷史定位”，不過我猜他要是知道實情可能就能釋懷了吧。
雖然今天我們在歷史課本上可以看到伯里克利的名字，但他的事蹟功業其實有很長的時間都在云裡霧裡，常常人們都弄不清楚此人真正的位置在何方。這也是作者在一開始敘述其為何這樣撰寫本書的原因，要在古代留下來那些多少帶著偏見的史料中爬梳出一個“接近真實”面貌的伯里克利。這也是我極度讚賞本書的地方。或許這不是什麼創新，但卻是一種具有研究精神的撰寫，或許我們已不缺再一本，但更希望看到是言之有物的著作。最後要稱讚的是譯者，如果沒有他出色的工作，流暢的文筆跟字句的完整再現，原書再好也是枉然。
今天我們討論伯里克利其實還是深具意義的，在這個全球民主正在走向崩壞的年代，人們對政治冷感，公信力走向最低值，甚至鼓吹威權的聲囂塵上，究竟人們需要的是什麼？或許我們不需要凱撒、奧古斯都等帝王，可是當有一位伯里克利出現時，你能慧眼識英雄嗎？
May 6, 2024
Très bon travail sur les sources et l'analyse de celles-ci afin de tenter d'ecrire une biographie le plus fiable possible malgré le manque d'informations existantes sur le personnage et le biais dans les sources disponible.
Très bon livre pour les personnes qui ont un grand intérêt dans le Vème siècle av JC, l'époque florissante de la cité d'athènes, le developpement de la démocratie et la guerre du peloponèse.
Un peu répetitif a certains moments.
Bonne lecture!
Très bon livre pour les personnes qui ont un grand intérêt dans le Vème siècle av JC, l'époque florissante de la cité d'athènes, le developpement de la démocratie et la guerre du peloponèse.
Un peu répetitif a certains moments.
Bonne lecture!
March 4, 2024
This brilliantly balanced and well researched book has been divided into 12 chapters:
1. An Ordinary Young Athenian Aristocrat?
2. The Bases of Periclean Power: The Stratēgos
3. The Bases of Periclean Power: The Orator
4. Pericles and Athenian Imperialism
5. A Periclean Economy?
6. Pericles and His Circle: Family and Friends
7. Pericles and Eros: Caught between Civic Unity and Political Subversion
8. Pericles and the City Gods
9. After Pericles: The Decline of Athens?
10. The Individual and Democracy: The Place of the “Great Man”
11. Pericles in Disgrace: A Long Spell in Purgatory (15th to 18th Centuries)
12. Pericles Rediscovered: The Fabrication of the Periclean Myth (18th to 21st Centuries)
In keeping with the problem regarding historiographic embellishment, the author warns us at the very outset:
‘A project centered on Pericles has to walk a tightrope. We should take care not to idealize Athens but, at the same time, not to deny the rupture introduced by the invention of democracy; if possible, we should also avoid misleading parallels without, however, renouncing certain carefully controlled anachronisms, given that history, even when positivist, always feeds on present-day debates; and finally, we should succumb neither to the illusion of the power of one great man nor to that of the all-powerful masses…’
And he suggests:
‘Rather, we should inquire into the productive tension that developed between the stratēgos and the Athenian community. If we accept those three conditions, we have some hope of plumbing the true historical depths of both Pericles and the city, at the same time emphasizing the profound differences as well as the few resemblances that it has with our own contemporary democratic life…’
The author does his job brilliantly.
The picture that becomes clear is something like this:
i. Percles’ wealth and parentage afforded him the means of acquainted intercourse with most of the renowned persons in the field of knowledge and art, who were resorting to Athens as a common seat of learning.
ii. Among the persons, besides Damonides and Anaxagoras, he received lessons from Pythoclides, Zeno and others. But Philosopher Anaxagoras appears to have exercised the most authoritative and durable influence on his mind and character, while Damonides developed in him a bias for democracy.
iii. Temperamentally he was an aristocrat rather than a commoner, he was reserve, shy of society, ostentatiously devoted to public duty and when his authority became unassailable brutally frank and truthful. He was never a demagogue but as a speaker ranked by his contemporaries as unrivalled in persuasive eloquence.
iv. There have never been better judges of oratory than the Athenians of Periclean Age and in their verdict Pericles was a mighty speaker and his eloquence was not one of clear expression alone but the outcome of clear thought as well. His love of art was as unquestioned as his democratic professions.
v. As a military commander he was nothing extraordinary and could never claim to be ranked with Cimon, Myronides or Alcibiades. His foreign policy, down to the conclusion of the Thirty Years' Peace was based on a miscalculation, both of the resources of Athens, and of the attractive power of the democratic ideal; in spite of its initial successes, it brought Athens to the brink of Abyss.
vi. It was in his domestic rather than in his foreign policy that his genius stood revealed. Democracy insofar as it meant government by the people and for the people, the Athenian constitution as created by the intellect of Pericles was certainly the most complete. Yet it was this constitution that proved Athens' undoing in the long run.
The author says: ‘Pericles was neither a hero nor a nobody. He should be restored to his full complexity, and we should endeavor to free ourselves from a historiography that, over a long period, either ignored him or exposed him to public contempt, before eventually transforming him into a veritable icon of democracy. The Periclean myth is a recent re-creation. Up until the end of the eighteenth century, Pericles was for the most part judged with disdain, if not arrogantly ignored. Blinded by Roman and Spartan models, the men of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment regarded the stratēgos as an unscrupulous demagogue who headed a degenerate regime.’
To conclude we say this:
The question naturally arises as to why Pericles should be regarded as ‘great’ and on what should his claim to ‘greatness’ rest? As this book would tell you, the greatness of Pericles was inseparable from the greatness of Athens. In an age when the whole energy of the Athenian society, a society perhaps the most gifted known to history, was determinedly directed to a given end by a single will, Pericles' claim rests on having given that singleness of will, unity of perseverance and audaciousness of direction which made Athens what it was in the Periclean Age. Without Pericles, the debt of the posterity to Athens would have been far less.
Give this book a try if you choose. Despite the fact that the narrative is overdramatic in places, I recommend it.
1. An Ordinary Young Athenian Aristocrat?
2. The Bases of Periclean Power: The Stratēgos
3. The Bases of Periclean Power: The Orator
4. Pericles and Athenian Imperialism
5. A Periclean Economy?
6. Pericles and His Circle: Family and Friends
7. Pericles and Eros: Caught between Civic Unity and Political Subversion
8. Pericles and the City Gods
9. After Pericles: The Decline of Athens?
10. The Individual and Democracy: The Place of the “Great Man”
11. Pericles in Disgrace: A Long Spell in Purgatory (15th to 18th Centuries)
12. Pericles Rediscovered: The Fabrication of the Periclean Myth (18th to 21st Centuries)
In keeping with the problem regarding historiographic embellishment, the author warns us at the very outset:
‘A project centered on Pericles has to walk a tightrope. We should take care not to idealize Athens but, at the same time, not to deny the rupture introduced by the invention of democracy; if possible, we should also avoid misleading parallels without, however, renouncing certain carefully controlled anachronisms, given that history, even when positivist, always feeds on present-day debates; and finally, we should succumb neither to the illusion of the power of one great man nor to that of the all-powerful masses…’
And he suggests:
‘Rather, we should inquire into the productive tension that developed between the stratēgos and the Athenian community. If we accept those three conditions, we have some hope of plumbing the true historical depths of both Pericles and the city, at the same time emphasizing the profound differences as well as the few resemblances that it has with our own contemporary democratic life…’
The author does his job brilliantly.
The picture that becomes clear is something like this:
i. Percles’ wealth and parentage afforded him the means of acquainted intercourse with most of the renowned persons in the field of knowledge and art, who were resorting to Athens as a common seat of learning.
ii. Among the persons, besides Damonides and Anaxagoras, he received lessons from Pythoclides, Zeno and others. But Philosopher Anaxagoras appears to have exercised the most authoritative and durable influence on his mind and character, while Damonides developed in him a bias for democracy.
iii. Temperamentally he was an aristocrat rather than a commoner, he was reserve, shy of society, ostentatiously devoted to public duty and when his authority became unassailable brutally frank and truthful. He was never a demagogue but as a speaker ranked by his contemporaries as unrivalled in persuasive eloquence.
iv. There have never been better judges of oratory than the Athenians of Periclean Age and in their verdict Pericles was a mighty speaker and his eloquence was not one of clear expression alone but the outcome of clear thought as well. His love of art was as unquestioned as his democratic professions.
v. As a military commander he was nothing extraordinary and could never claim to be ranked with Cimon, Myronides or Alcibiades. His foreign policy, down to the conclusion of the Thirty Years' Peace was based on a miscalculation, both of the resources of Athens, and of the attractive power of the democratic ideal; in spite of its initial successes, it brought Athens to the brink of Abyss.
vi. It was in his domestic rather than in his foreign policy that his genius stood revealed. Democracy insofar as it meant government by the people and for the people, the Athenian constitution as created by the intellect of Pericles was certainly the most complete. Yet it was this constitution that proved Athens' undoing in the long run.
The author says: ‘Pericles was neither a hero nor a nobody. He should be restored to his full complexity, and we should endeavor to free ourselves from a historiography that, over a long period, either ignored him or exposed him to public contempt, before eventually transforming him into a veritable icon of democracy. The Periclean myth is a recent re-creation. Up until the end of the eighteenth century, Pericles was for the most part judged with disdain, if not arrogantly ignored. Blinded by Roman and Spartan models, the men of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment regarded the stratēgos as an unscrupulous demagogue who headed a degenerate regime.’
To conclude we say this:
The question naturally arises as to why Pericles should be regarded as ‘great’ and on what should his claim to ‘greatness’ rest? As this book would tell you, the greatness of Pericles was inseparable from the greatness of Athens. In an age when the whole energy of the Athenian society, a society perhaps the most gifted known to history, was determinedly directed to a given end by a single will, Pericles' claim rests on having given that singleness of will, unity of perseverance and audaciousness of direction which made Athens what it was in the Periclean Age. Without Pericles, the debt of the posterity to Athens would have been far less.
Give this book a try if you choose. Despite the fact that the narrative is overdramatic in places, I recommend it.
July 24, 2015
Lucid, balanced, and highly educational.
May 9, 2016
Εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέρον ανάγνωσμα! Καλογραμμένο, ισορροπημένο και με εμπεριστατωμένη επιχειρηματολογία. Φωτίζει την προσωπικότητα του Περικλή από πολλές πλευρές.
February 21, 2021
Not the right book for me, it's more of a history about history, too academic for me. A big focus on giving a non heroic view of the man.
July 21, 2021
An excellent study.
August 14, 2016
Initially I thought book will be organized chronologically and based on Pericles biography, but in fact it was organized by topics that the authors thought were relevant to understand 5th century BC Athens and Pericles role in city's life.
Over centuries since fall of ancient Greek civilization educated establishment in the West took mutually exclusive view of Pericles. Until 19th century, most writings dedicated to ancient Greek considered Pericles in negative light due to Athens legacy in Peloponnesian war that ended in its defeat by Sparta and its allies. Many blamed Pericles for initiating this great war and leaving Athens unprepared.
However, opposite view shared by the author of this book suggests that Pericles was not in a position to single handedly decide the fate of Athens but rather he was a great statesman that skillfully operated within the framework of Athenian democracy. The fact that Athens ultimately lost the war to Sparta indicates that Athenian democracy as it is existed in 5th century BC simply had not developed sufficient check and balances that ensures that state properly directs its resources independently who is nominal head of the state.
posted David Usharauli
http://bookidealist.blogspot.com/2016...
Over centuries since fall of ancient Greek civilization educated establishment in the West took mutually exclusive view of Pericles. Until 19th century, most writings dedicated to ancient Greek considered Pericles in negative light due to Athens legacy in Peloponnesian war that ended in its defeat by Sparta and its allies. Many blamed Pericles for initiating this great war and leaving Athens unprepared.
However, opposite view shared by the author of this book suggests that Pericles was not in a position to single handedly decide the fate of Athens but rather he was a great statesman that skillfully operated within the framework of Athenian democracy. The fact that Athens ultimately lost the war to Sparta indicates that Athenian democracy as it is existed in 5th century BC simply had not developed sufficient check and balances that ensures that state properly directs its resources independently who is nominal head of the state.
posted David Usharauli
http://bookidealist.blogspot.com/2016...
September 6, 2016
Pericles of Athens provides a well-researched and well-rounded biography of the titular figure. Azoulay's ten chapters on the life and times of Pericles, corresponding to themes rather than narrative chunks, are followed by a surprisingly thorough and interesting two chapters on Pericles's legacy to the present day. Despite the stability of his regime, Pericles has been subject to the wildest vicissitudes of popular and academic opinion for the last ~2500 years. Azoulay gives all these interpretations a hearing, dismisses the slanders, and then offers a careful assessment of what we can know or assume. In the end, Pericles the man remains something of a cipher, but Azoulay's neat study brings as as close as we may come to the feet of the mystery.
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