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Community and Society
A classic in its field, Community and Society was not the first book to explore the composition of, and relationship between, these two types of social groups. Confucius spoke of fundamental social relationships between friends, family members, and rulers and subjects. Similarly, Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and other great thinkers produced clear-cut classical outlines of the two groups.
More recently, Ferdinand Tönnies examines the clash between small-scale neighborhood-based communities and the large-scale competitive market society. In doing so, he considered all aspects of life — political, economic, legal, and family; art, religion, and culture; construction of "selfhood" and "personhood"; and modes of cognition, language, and understanding.
One of the first major studies of sociology, this republication of an important work will introduce Tönnies thoughts to a new generation of English-speaking students of sociology, political theory, and the history of European ideas.
More recently, Ferdinand Tönnies examines the clash between small-scale neighborhood-based communities and the large-scale competitive market society. In doing so, he considered all aspects of life — political, economic, legal, and family; art, religion, and culture; construction of "selfhood" and "personhood"; and modes of cognition, language, and understanding.
One of the first major studies of sociology, this republication of an important work will introduce Tönnies thoughts to a new generation of English-speaking students of sociology, political theory, and the history of European ideas.
320 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1887
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About the author
Ferdinand Tönnies
133 books25 followersFerdinand Tönnies was a German philosopher and sociologist.
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Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews
May 18, 2009
After years of getting him secondhand, I thought it was high time to read Tönnies directly. This book, first published in 1887, presents a simple and elegant model. Tönnies contrasts "community" (Gemeinschaft) with "society" (Gesellschaft) as modes of human existence -- the former being characteristic of premodern humanity, and the latter being characteristic of modern civilization.
In "community," according to Tönnies, human lives are bound together by kinship, proximity, custom, and religion. The individual is inseparable from an organic whole, which developed together not (primarily) as a result of rational deliberation but rather as a result of evolving practices. Mentally, humans in community are directed by "natural will," i.e., a conscience bound to experience and habit; in this context, behavior and selfhood are identical. Economically, humans are connected with the land and involved in face-to-face trade in goods. Legally, they are constrained by traditions and collective possession. In a pure form, Gemeinschaft is religious communism.
In "society," however, individual life is detached from its organic basis. The individual becomes a rational free agent. Mentally, the individual is directed by "artificial will," i.e., a consciousness characterized by endless questioning and coldblooded testing of means for the sake of attaining chosen ends. Economically, the individual maximizes his wealth and power through increasingly abstract market activity. Legally, individuals compete with one another for power and must therefore enter compacts to protect the peace. Public opinion replaces custom, the state replaces the town, and global capitalism replaces the land. Ultimately, this will lead either to a revolution of the downtrodden masses or to an international socialist state as the fullest manifestation of rationalized association -- Tönnies doesn't seem to be sure which. He is very murky on this point.
In fact, Tönnies is inconsistent on a number of matters. First, for example, he pretends to be "objectively" analyzing two different forms of healthy human association. Yet the reader would have to be very thick to miss the fact that his sympathies lie overwhelmingly with community. It is there that he sees "true" freedom, as well as warmth, creativity, and security. He portrays civil society as soulless and brutal; it is a "state of war," in his beautiful inversion of the picture painted by Thomas Hobbes, whereas the state of nature is a state of peace. Second, Tönnies is vague on whether the market economy causes Gesellschaft or Gesellschaft causes the market economy. He leans different ways at different times, switching between materialism and idealism. I have no problem with that, except where it leads him to succumb, in discussing the present and future of the European economy, to the temptations of Marxist or Comtean orthodoxy. Third, his inability to come to terms with the aforesaid issue is probably one reason he dithers over whether the inevitable outcome of late Gesellschaft will be a global socialist oligarchy or a global proletarian revolution in favor of communism. Clearly, I would say, it's the former -- because I see power in consciousness rather than in supposedly "objective" existence, which Tönnies himself frequently acknowledges as being a fiction. Fourth, Tönnies's preface proclaims sociological science to be a superior mode of inquiry to "mere" history, which prefers the concrete to the systematic and tends to be subjectively preoccupied with present political concerns. Yet to choose sociology over history is to establish society over community as the inevitable trend of one's mode of thought. And I'm pretty sure the same thing would have occurred to Tönnies, although he hides his awareness of the fact. That strikes me as kind of tragic.
Anyway, this is a very clear translation of a very thought-provoking text. I recommend it highly.
In "community," according to Tönnies, human lives are bound together by kinship, proximity, custom, and religion. The individual is inseparable from an organic whole, which developed together not (primarily) as a result of rational deliberation but rather as a result of evolving practices. Mentally, humans in community are directed by "natural will," i.e., a conscience bound to experience and habit; in this context, behavior and selfhood are identical. Economically, humans are connected with the land and involved in face-to-face trade in goods. Legally, they are constrained by traditions and collective possession. In a pure form, Gemeinschaft is religious communism.
In "society," however, individual life is detached from its organic basis. The individual becomes a rational free agent. Mentally, the individual is directed by "artificial will," i.e., a consciousness characterized by endless questioning and coldblooded testing of means for the sake of attaining chosen ends. Economically, the individual maximizes his wealth and power through increasingly abstract market activity. Legally, individuals compete with one another for power and must therefore enter compacts to protect the peace. Public opinion replaces custom, the state replaces the town, and global capitalism replaces the land. Ultimately, this will lead either to a revolution of the downtrodden masses or to an international socialist state as the fullest manifestation of rationalized association -- Tönnies doesn't seem to be sure which. He is very murky on this point.
In fact, Tönnies is inconsistent on a number of matters. First, for example, he pretends to be "objectively" analyzing two different forms of healthy human association. Yet the reader would have to be very thick to miss the fact that his sympathies lie overwhelmingly with community. It is there that he sees "true" freedom, as well as warmth, creativity, and security. He portrays civil society as soulless and brutal; it is a "state of war," in his beautiful inversion of the picture painted by Thomas Hobbes, whereas the state of nature is a state of peace. Second, Tönnies is vague on whether the market economy causes Gesellschaft or Gesellschaft causes the market economy. He leans different ways at different times, switching between materialism and idealism. I have no problem with that, except where it leads him to succumb, in discussing the present and future of the European economy, to the temptations of Marxist or Comtean orthodoxy. Third, his inability to come to terms with the aforesaid issue is probably one reason he dithers over whether the inevitable outcome of late Gesellschaft will be a global socialist oligarchy or a global proletarian revolution in favor of communism. Clearly, I would say, it's the former -- because I see power in consciousness rather than in supposedly "objective" existence, which Tönnies himself frequently acknowledges as being a fiction. Fourth, Tönnies's preface proclaims sociological science to be a superior mode of inquiry to "mere" history, which prefers the concrete to the systematic and tends to be subjectively preoccupied with present political concerns. Yet to choose sociology over history is to establish society over community as the inevitable trend of one's mode of thought. And I'm pretty sure the same thing would have occurred to Tönnies, although he hides his awareness of the fact. That strikes me as kind of tragic.
Anyway, this is a very clear translation of a very thought-provoking text. I recommend it highly.
September 5, 2025
Tonnies's concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft -- despite the many challenges over the years -- still remain a remarkably durable way of looking at the world. I read this book in 2025, as the last dying throes of capitalism are suffocating (if not killing off) the true originals, the real thinkers, and the sui generis innovators. Gesellschaft, meaning the obligation to be part of the community (a solid example of this would involve participating in one of those hideous mandatory corporate rituals such as a weekend team-building exercise or some other capitulation of your free time), remains a distinctly oppressive force to Gemeinschaft, which represents the natural love, curiosity, and nonartificial connections that you have with others. In short, Gemeinschaft is the frisson. And Gesellschaft is the bullshit you are signed on for that you don't really want to do. Tonnies doesn't have any real answers and, rather oddly, points to Orthodox and Amish communities as perfect exemplars of Gemeinschaft -- or togetherness. I also disagree with Tonnies that Gesellschaft, which would be akin to neoliberalism, stifles individualism altogether. If one is accepted and naturally belongs to a group (a la Gemeinschaft), wouldn't one be MORE encouraged to be individual? To be true to one's eccentricities?
And now here I am joining the Tonnies naysayers! But really I'm not. The overall duality here is definitely something that you could have hours of conversation about. Tonnies stumbled upon a specific way of delineating innate togetherness from forced togetherness. And it's certainly a lot more sophisticated than similar collective pablum along these lines offered by a fool like Alain de Botton. Yes, there's the risk of overgeneralization. But I truly wish I had stumbled upon Tonnies earlier in life. It would have made some of the more torturous social affairs I've had to sit through in my time more bearable if I could only have played the "Is this Gesellschaft or Gemeinschaft?" game. Ha!
And now here I am joining the Tonnies naysayers! But really I'm not. The overall duality here is definitely something that you could have hours of conversation about. Tonnies stumbled upon a specific way of delineating innate togetherness from forced togetherness. And it's certainly a lot more sophisticated than similar collective pablum along these lines offered by a fool like Alain de Botton. Yes, there's the risk of overgeneralization. But I truly wish I had stumbled upon Tonnies earlier in life. It would have made some of the more torturous social affairs I've had to sit through in my time more bearable if I could only have played the "Is this Gesellschaft or Gemeinschaft?" game. Ha!
February 20, 2025
Comunidad y Sociedad de Ferdinand Tönnies (1887) es una obra clave en la sociología clásica que establece una distinción fundamental entre dos formas de organización social: la comunidad (Gemeinschaft) y la sociedad (Gesellschaft). La comunidad es un espacio donde predominan las relaciones afectivas, íntimas y naturales, propias de la familia, los pueblos rurales y los grupos tradicionales. En este entorno, la cohesión social surge de la costumbre, la religión y la identidad compartida, generando un fuerte sentido de pertenencia.
Por otro lado, la sociedad representa un tipo de vínculo social moderno, basado en la racionalidad, los contratos y el interés individual. Aquí, las relaciones son impersonales y funcionales, características de las ciudades, el comercio y la burocracia. Tönnies sostiene que la modernización y el capitalismo han impulsado la transformación de la comunidad en sociedad, erosionando los lazos tradicionales y promoviendo interacciones cada vez más calculadas y distantes.
El impacto de esta teoría trasciende su época, ya que permite analizar fenómenos contemporáneos como la globalización, la urbanización, el auge de las redes sociales y la creciente desconexión en las grandes ciudades. Aunque el libro presenta un lenguaje filosófico denso y no ofrece soluciones concretas para equilibrar comunidad y sociedad, su contribución al pensamiento sociológico es innegable. Su marco conceptual sigue siendo una referencia obligada para comprender la evolución de las relaciones humanas en el mundo moderno.
Por otro lado, la sociedad representa un tipo de vínculo social moderno, basado en la racionalidad, los contratos y el interés individual. Aquí, las relaciones son impersonales y funcionales, características de las ciudades, el comercio y la burocracia. Tönnies sostiene que la modernización y el capitalismo han impulsado la transformación de la comunidad en sociedad, erosionando los lazos tradicionales y promoviendo interacciones cada vez más calculadas y distantes.
El impacto de esta teoría trasciende su época, ya que permite analizar fenómenos contemporáneos como la globalización, la urbanización, el auge de las redes sociales y la creciente desconexión en las grandes ciudades. Aunque el libro presenta un lenguaje filosófico denso y no ofrece soluciones concretas para equilibrar comunidad y sociedad, su contribución al pensamiento sociológico es innegable. Su marco conceptual sigue siendo una referencia obligada para comprender la evolución de las relaciones humanas en el mundo moderno.
February 27, 2019
A central text in the history of Sociology. Reading against the debates between the anti-revolutionaries, such as Burke, de Maistre, Donoso Cortes, and the radicals like Prooudhon, Marx etc.. Tönnies offers a kind of theoretical framework that attempts to subsume both stances to a totalising historicised picture of social orders.
March 7, 2020
2.5
Uno dei testi più lunghi e pesanti che abbia mai letto per sociologia. Tanta misoginia. Capisco che sia normale data la sua età ma oddio, è stato terribile. Non finiva più.
Uno dei testi più lunghi e pesanti che abbia mai letto per sociologia. Tanta misoginia. Capisco che sia normale data la sua età ma oddio, è stato terribile. Non finiva più.
December 3, 2024
Excellent book on social theory, but one of my most difficult reads ever
November 1, 2024
Em Comunidade e Sociedade, Ferdinand Tönnies apresenta a célebre distinção entre Gemeinschaft (comunidade) e Gesellschaft (sociedade), explorando a transformação das relações humanas em meio ao avanço da modernidade. Para ele, a comunidade representa os laços próximos e orgânicos das pequenas comunidades tradicionais, onde as decisões e interações são guiadas pela “vontade natural” e enraizadas em valores compartilhados e sentimentos de pertencimento.
Por outro lado, a sociedade é moderna e urbana, fundamentada na “vontade racional”, em que as relações são impessoais, orientadas por interesses individuais e regulamentadas por contratos. Tönnies analisa como essa transição para um modelo mais racional fragmenta os vínculos sociais e promove o individualismo, trazendo desafios para a coesão social e para o sentido de comunidade.
Com uma análise detalhada da influência do Estado, da opinião pública e da religião, Tönnies argumenta que essas duas formas de vida social coexistem em tensão, impactando leis, costumes e a moralidade coletiva.
Por outro lado, a sociedade é moderna e urbana, fundamentada na “vontade racional”, em que as relações são impessoais, orientadas por interesses individuais e regulamentadas por contratos. Tönnies analisa como essa transição para um modelo mais racional fragmenta os vínculos sociais e promove o individualismo, trazendo desafios para a coesão social e para o sentido de comunidade.
Com uma análise detalhada da influência do Estado, da opinião pública e da religião, Tönnies argumenta que essas duas formas de vida social coexistem em tensão, impactando leis, costumes e a moralidade coletiva.
June 20, 2023
Ferdinand Tönnies' seminal work, "Community and Society," presents a comprehensive analysis of social relationships, exploring the contrasting dynamics of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society). Tönnies examines the shifting nature of human interactions and the implications for social cohesion in modern industrialized societies. This review aims to provide an academic evaluation of Tönnies' arguments, discussing the book's strengths, weaknesses, and its significance within the fields of sociology, anthropology, and social theory.
"Community and Society" by Ferdinand Tönnies delves into the fundamental structures of social organization, elucidating the dynamics of two distinct types of social relationships: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Tönnies contrasts the organic, traditional bonds found in Gemeinschaft with the contractual, individualistic associations prevalent in Gesellschaft. He explores the social consequences of the transition from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft in the context of modern industrialized societies, highlighting the tensions and challenges that arise as traditional community ties erode.
Tönnies' work stands out for its theoretical depth and its ability to shed light on the complexities of human interactions. He draws upon historical, cultural, and anthropological evidence to support his arguments, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of the societal transformations that shape social relationships. Tönnies' analysis fosters critical reflections on the nature of community, the challenges of modernity, and the potential for collective solidarity.
One of the notable strengths of "Community and Society" lies in Tönnies' theoretical framework and his ability to provide a comprehensive analysis of social relationships. He offers a nuanced understanding of the distinctions between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, grounding his arguments in empirical evidence and sociological insights. Tönnies' theoretical depth enhances the book's intellectual rigor, providing readers with a robust conceptual framework for understanding the dynamics of social organization.
Moreover, Tönnies' exploration of the social consequences of modernization and industrialization highlights the tensions between tradition and progress, communal ties and individual autonomy. His analysis prompts readers to critically reflect on the implications of societal changes for human well-being, social cohesion, and the potential loss of community bonds. Tönnies' work sparks intellectual curiosity and stimulates discussions on the complex interplay between social structures, human agency, and the formation of social bonds.
While "Community and Society" offers a compelling analysis, it is not without its limitations. Some critics argue that Tönnies' dichotomous framework oversimplifies the complexities of social relationships, potentially neglecting the diversity and fluidity of social interactions. A more nuanced understanding of the variations and hybrid forms between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft would enhance the book's analytical breadth.
Additionally, Tönnies' writing style can be dense and laden with technical terminology, making it challenging for some readers to engage with his arguments. A more accessible presentation of ideas, clearer explanations of key concepts, and concrete illustrations could enhance the book's readability and facilitate broader readership engagement.
"Community and Society" holds significant importance within the fields of sociology, anthropology, and social theory as a seminal work that highlights the intricacies of social relationships and the consequences of societal transformations. Tönnies' analysis prompts critical reflections on the nature of community, the challenges of modernity, and the complexities of human interactions. The book's contribution lies in its ability to foster discussions on the tensions between tradition and progress, and the possibilities for cultivating meaningful social bonds in an increasingly individualistic and fragmented society.
GPT
"Community and Society" by Ferdinand Tönnies delves into the fundamental structures of social organization, elucidating the dynamics of two distinct types of social relationships: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Tönnies contrasts the organic, traditional bonds found in Gemeinschaft with the contractual, individualistic associations prevalent in Gesellschaft. He explores the social consequences of the transition from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft in the context of modern industrialized societies, highlighting the tensions and challenges that arise as traditional community ties erode.
Tönnies' work stands out for its theoretical depth and its ability to shed light on the complexities of human interactions. He draws upon historical, cultural, and anthropological evidence to support his arguments, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of the societal transformations that shape social relationships. Tönnies' analysis fosters critical reflections on the nature of community, the challenges of modernity, and the potential for collective solidarity.
One of the notable strengths of "Community and Society" lies in Tönnies' theoretical framework and his ability to provide a comprehensive analysis of social relationships. He offers a nuanced understanding of the distinctions between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, grounding his arguments in empirical evidence and sociological insights. Tönnies' theoretical depth enhances the book's intellectual rigor, providing readers with a robust conceptual framework for understanding the dynamics of social organization.
Moreover, Tönnies' exploration of the social consequences of modernization and industrialization highlights the tensions between tradition and progress, communal ties and individual autonomy. His analysis prompts readers to critically reflect on the implications of societal changes for human well-being, social cohesion, and the potential loss of community bonds. Tönnies' work sparks intellectual curiosity and stimulates discussions on the complex interplay between social structures, human agency, and the formation of social bonds.
While "Community and Society" offers a compelling analysis, it is not without its limitations. Some critics argue that Tönnies' dichotomous framework oversimplifies the complexities of social relationships, potentially neglecting the diversity and fluidity of social interactions. A more nuanced understanding of the variations and hybrid forms between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft would enhance the book's analytical breadth.
Additionally, Tönnies' writing style can be dense and laden with technical terminology, making it challenging for some readers to engage with his arguments. A more accessible presentation of ideas, clearer explanations of key concepts, and concrete illustrations could enhance the book's readability and facilitate broader readership engagement.
"Community and Society" holds significant importance within the fields of sociology, anthropology, and social theory as a seminal work that highlights the intricacies of social relationships and the consequences of societal transformations. Tönnies' analysis prompts critical reflections on the nature of community, the challenges of modernity, and the complexities of human interactions. The book's contribution lies in its ability to foster discussions on the tensions between tradition and progress, and the possibilities for cultivating meaningful social bonds in an increasingly individualistic and fragmented society.
GPT
abandoned
July 7, 2019 42%
Only read Book 1, on the theories of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (civil society).
Tönnies holds "community" as the natural state of association which (d)evolves into civil society as exchange and commerce gain in power. I understood Gesellschaft to be nearly synonymous to a capitalist society.
Tönnies more or less acknowledges that community is held together by benevolent authoritarianism. Is equality incompatible with community?
The writing is expectedly academic.
Only read Book 1, on the theories of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (civil society).
Tönnies holds "community" as the natural state of association which (d)evolves into civil society as exchange and commerce gain in power. I understood Gesellschaft to be nearly synonymous to a capitalist society.
Tönnies more or less acknowledges that community is held together by benevolent authoritarianism. Is equality incompatible with community?
The writing is expectedly academic.
July 18, 2015
It is evident to see how influential Tonnies original views from 1887 have been on sociologists, anthropologists, etc... over the past 130 years. This book is based on two concepts to explain human mentality and behavior - Gemenischaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society). Foundational sociological work, but obviously a bit antiquated in views on male/female roles.
December 31, 2022
Geminschaft i Gesellschaft u <3
not-finished-too-boring
September 11, 2018way too academic
Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews