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Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIème siècle, La religion de Rabelais

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Lucien Febvre’s magisterial study of sixteenth century religious and intellectual history, published in 1942, is at long last available in English, in a translation that does it full justice. The book is a modern classic. Febvre, founder with Marc Bloch of the journal Annales , was one of France’s leading historians, a scholar whose field of expertise was the sixteenth century. This book, written late in his career, is regarded as his masterpiece. Despite the subtitle, it is not primarily a study of Rabelais; it is a study of the mental life, the mentalité , of a whole age.

Febvre worked on the book for ten years. His purpose at first was he set out to demolish the notion that Rabelais was a covert atheist, a freethinker ahead of his time. To expose the anachronism of that view, he proceeded to a close examination of the ideas, information, beliefs, and values of Rabelais and his contemporaries. He combed archives and local records, compendia of popular lore, the work of writers from Luther and Erasmus to Ronsard, the verses of obscure neo-Latin poets. Everything was grist for his books about comets, medical texts, philological treatises, even music and architecture. The result is a work of extraordinary richness of texture, enlivened by a wealth of concrete details―a compelling intellectual portrait of the period by a historian of rare insight, great intelligence, and vast learning.

Febvre wrote with Gallic flair. His style is informal, often witty, at times combative, and colorful almost to a fault. His idiosyncrasies of syntax and vocabulary have defeated many who have tried to read, let alone translate, the French text. Beatrice Gottlieb has succeeded in rendering his prose accurately and readably, conveying a sense of Febvre’s strong, often argumentative personality as well as his brilliantly intuitive feeling for Renaissance France.

503 pages, ebook

First published January 1, 1942

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Lucien Febvre

73 books40 followers
Lucien Paul Victor Febvre was a French historian best known for the role he played in establishing the Annales School of history.

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Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews
Profile Image for Katie.
513 reviews340 followers
November 18, 2013
Reading Lucien Febvre's The Problem of Unbelief in the 16th Century: The Religion of Rabelais is a bit like going to a dinner party at the house of an illustrious professor (or, you know, what I'd imagine that sort of thing would be like). Things are rather classy and intellectual, everyone is enjoying themselves and then - just as dinner is about to be served - someone makes a comment about the new theory in the professor's field, proposed an absent colleague. The Illustrious Professor, slightly drunk, is astounded by this theory, and decides that it's his duty to launch into a full-on diatribe that goes on for a couple of hours. Historical figures are called as witnesses and rhetorical questions abound. In some ways, it's fascinating. The professor, amid all his byzantine rhetorical flourishes, makes some genuinely insightful points and crafts some really beautiful sections of prose. But after a while it becomes harder to appreciate: it's difficult not to wish that the guy would cool it a bit with the overblown rhetoric and the relentless attacks, and ease up on the name dropping. After a while, too, you start to wonder just how much of the rhetorical panache is being pulled out to cover up the possibility that there may not be all that much there in terms of substance.

Our professor here is Lucien Febvre, co-founder of the Annales school of historiography along with the slightly more well-known Marc Bloch. His opponent is poor Abel LeFranc, who really gets relentlessly picked about for 400+ pages here. LeFranc, in a 1922 introduction to the works of Rabelais had suggested that the French author was a man ahead of his time: he was skeptical in a time where skepticism was unheard of and a ridiculer of Christianity who just barely hid behind a facade of faith. And, in the end, he was an atheist, one of the first. Febvre mounts a full-on attack on this position. He starts by combing through all the evidence against Rabelais, both in his own writings and the writings of those who supposedly attacked his religious belief. Then, in work's second part, Febvre widens his scope to look at how Rabelais's religion fit in with the broader spiritual currents of the time and how belief (and unbelief) can be contextualized within the 16th century as a whole.

He comes to some really interesting conclusions. The main takeaway from the book's first section is that the term 'atheist' in the 16th century did not mean what it means today: if anything, it was almost entirely bereft of any genuine meaning at all. Anyone who was anyone in the 16th century got angrily labeled an atheist at some point or another, and it was a piece of invective that got slapped on Reformed thinkers and the overly-superstitious alike. Rabelais, far from being an atheist in the modern sense, seems to have been very medieval in much of his thinking - particularly the irreverent, bawdy sections of his works - and mixed these medievalisms with a healthy does of Erasmus and a touch of Luther. Then, in the book's last section, Febvre widens his gaze and suggests that not only was Rabelais not an atheist, but no one really was during the period: the mental equipment that would be required to make a break from a world utterly imbued with Christianity and its associated systems of thought - equipment like philosophical language, scientific instruments, or an experimental mindset - had not yet come into being. Not only was Rabelais not an atheist, he couldn't have been one.

So there are a lot of genuinely fascinating points here. There are also lots of really enjoyable passages. The book's first 100 pages, which explore the various assessments of Rabelais by contemporaries, is loads of fun and nicely illustrates Febvre's gift for storytelling. His section on Julius Caesar Scaliger and his crazy made-up past is all kinds of fun. Febvre has a gift for bringing people to life, even if (or especially if) they are usually viewed as secondary actors on the historical stage.

Unfortunately some stars are docked here because the book's style can be very unwieldy and off-putting. One section near the start reads "Naturally, these turgid Olympians kept a suspicious eye on each other. Woe to him who injured their vanity! There were horrible insults and outcries of hatred, followed without pause by the most insane panegyrics and unrestrained dithyrambs." It's not atypical. Febvre's rhetorical extremes obscure more than elucidate what he's trying to say, and there are several occasions when historical accuracy gives way to poetic simplifications. For every moment of literary beauty, there are a couple of pages where things get pretty bogged down. And, maybe more problematically, I do think he tends to oversimplify matters more than he should. I'm not a 16th historian by any means at all, but I got the impression that certain nuances got pushed aside in the interest of making a more sweeping or inspiring rhetorical case.

Despite this, I do think this is an interesting book, and worth a read if you're interested in cultural/intellectual history. It's very different from your typical history monograph.
Profile Image for Caroline.
916 reviews316 followers
February 26, 2021
Lefebvre tries in this book to recapture how people thought in the sixteenth century. He posits that it is impossible to interpret both Rabelais’s writing and those who impugned him unless we can remove centuries of accumulated information and culture before we read. For example, to call someone an ‘atheist’ did not mean for a critic then what it means now.

In the sixteenth century it was religion that colored the universe. If a man proclaimed that he did not think about things exactly the way everyone else did, if he was bold in speech and quick to criticize, people said, “He is imipious. A blasphemer.” And they finished with, “An atheist!”


Lefebvre continues to argue that even intellectuals in the sixteenth century did not have the language or the science to seriously pursue a philosophical argument about the existence of god. They were beginning to gather more facts, as information about the Americas and the East broke upon Europe, but they did not have the analytical tools to assemble theories or systems to accommodate them.

Lefebvre prefaces the second half of the volume, the half that focuses on the philosophical and scientific mindset of the time, with his vision of his task:

…the history of the sciences and the history of thought are made up of fragments of violently contrasting designs and colors, a series of theories and attitudes that not only are distinct from one another but oppose and contradict each other. Each has its share of truth, considering the circumstances of time, place, social structure, and intellectual culture that explain its birth and its content. To the extent that we are thus able to justify these contrasts and oppositions, we can understand why, as circumstances changed, each of these theories and attitudes had to give way to others. Only to that extent can we evaluate the persistent effort of human intelligence as it responds to the pressure of events and the impact of circumstances. This is what the historian’s task really is.


He starts with what he calls ‘missing tools.’ He cites the modern words that could not be used to conceptualize experience in French. Some had equivalents in Latin, but they came with the baggage of Classic thinking that would not support new approaches. These missing words include absolute, relative, abstract, concrete, complex, intrinsic, virtual, adequate, causality, concept, criterion, condition, analysis, synthesis, deduction, etc etc etc. Lefebvre sets out a position that the sciences were not as unknown or static in the Middle Ages as is popularly portrayed, but he does argue that there was still every effort to incorporate new facts into old authoritative explanations, using old ways of thinking. He notes the lack of time measurement, and how this affected attitudes toward history. Among the most interesting arguments is that sixteenth century men relied much more than we do on taste and hearing, and less on sight. Combined with no measuring tools, downplaying sight led to no observational science. Science remained a matter of knowing your Aristotle and Galen.

Lefebvre finishes with reminding readers what the world would have been like when you combine this lack of tools with a world pervaded with religion. Every part of your life, from hearing bells rung multiple times a day to the calendar, to ritual, to education, to menu, to guilds, …all were permeated by religion. There was no rationalistic process available to challenge the concept of God, he says.

Some of the first half describes the major French players in the theological debates of the time. Lefebvre uses detailed archival research to undermine other scholars’ arguments that his peers accused Rabelais of atheism. Other chapters explore key concepts such as contemporary ideas of the soul and its disposition at death, miracles, and irreverence.

When Lefebvre opines on a more limited question, how far had Rabelais gone toward the German Reformation, he cites Henri Hauser’s two criteria of the time for a Lutherian stance: the Scriptures are the sole source of religion, and man is justified by faith alone. He finds fairly clear evidence in Rabelais for a Gospel stance, but contradictory writings on faith vs works. (One of the most vivid scenes in Gargantua and Pantagruel has to be the big storm where Panurge cowers and offers prayers and future donations, while Friar John takes charge of the sailors and enacts ‘God helps them that help themselves.’) Thus Lefebvre refers throughout to Rabelais as an Evangelical, sheltered by a patron who strongly criticized the Pope, and focuses on his close linkage to Erasmus’s humanist approach: ‘the vital unity of a philosophy of Christ with unlimited possibilities for development and change—the spirit of free and critical inquiry stemming from the Renaissance and the spirit of respectful, trusting adherence to dogma that formed the traditional strength and unity of the Church.’

In one sense it doesn’t matter whether you wholly buy into the argument. (I don't know enough to judge.) You will learn much, and be forced to think hard. The erudition is indisputable. You must, though, be prepared to move slowly. This is elegant French intellectual writing. It is full of ornate sentence structure, counterfactual set-ups to his actual position in order to demolish the opposition, and reliance on deep background knowledge. Whether your interest is literary or historical, it is a bracing exposure to the style.
Profile Image for Yann.
1,413 reviews392 followers
November 17, 2013
Ce livre est un pamphlet écrit par un historien français pendant la guerre, dans lequel il cherche à remettre en cause la thèse d'un autre historien français de la fin du XIXème, Abel Lefranc, qui aurait soutenu la thèse un peu fumeuse selon laquelle Rabelais aurait été un crypto-athée à l'origine d'une longue tradition de libertins, matérialistes, bouffeurs de curés et autres "singes de Lucien". La première partie de l'ouvrage est destinée à étriller l'opinion de son prédécesseur en bonne et due forme, déjà par les moyens les plus évidents: athée est une injure classique depuis les grecs qu'il ne faut pas entendre au sens moderne. On revisite ensuite les propos de ses contemporains pour vérifier la chose dans les pièces dont nous disposons, avec la joie féroce de l'auteur qui met en pièce les arguments adverses les uns après les autres.

On est un peu estomaqué, surtout si on a pas lu le livre visé, par une telle véhémence, mais l'enjeu est d'importance: il ne s'agit pas que de redresser une erreur, mais de remettre carrément en cause une méthode consistant à corrompre l'histoire avec les préjugés du moment. En l’occurrence, en France, à la fin du XIXème, toute la lutte politique de la troisième République entre cléricaux et anticléricaux. Rien n'est en effet aussi harassant et insupportable que ces ouvrages historiques qui passent leur temps à faire des comparaisons anachroniques, impertinentes, et fausses par dessus le marché, tout ça pour faire rentrer de force la réalité dans des catégories arbitraires et des systèmes chimériques dont l'auteur est tout vain. Il n'en reste pas moins que cette première partie m'a un peu ennuyée, car limitée et finalement peu instructive.

La seconde partie m'a bien plus accroché, car on y aborde des personnages plus importants, ainsi que des questions plus générales, sur ce que pouvait être l'environnement réel des hommes de cette époque, à travers lequel seulement il est possible de les comprendre. Les sarcasmes contre Abel Lefranc sont un peu mis de côté. Les opinions de Rabelais sont comparées à celles des fameux Luther et Érasme. Ça m'a rappelé les plaisirs de la lecture de leurs controverses passionnées! Ensuite, on analyse ce qu'aurais pu être l'athéisme de Rabelais, sur quels mots, quels concepts: c'est l'occasion de faire un balayage rapide des différents concepts philosophiques, comment ils sont apparus tard dans la langue, et donc combien il est saugrenu de considérer que les choses qu'ils désignent pouvaient être déjà vivaces des siècles avant, sans qu'ils prennent forme dans la pensée. Tous les progrès des sciences n'étaient également qu'en puissance: rien de sérieux n'avait encore été découvert pour ébranler la foi, et partout une terreur superstitieuse.

Ces idées ne sont pas simplement énoncées gratuitement, mais étayées par de nombreux exemples concrets, avec une ironie toujours mordante, qui soutient là agréablement l'attention du lecteur. Ça se lit avec plaisir. Pour autant, je ne recommanderais pas forcément cet ouvrage, sauf à qui voudrait faire l'histoire de l'histoire, et connaîtrait déjà bien tous les éléments du dossier. On a bien plus vite fait de s'instruire en lisant les vrais textes plutôt que les interminables chamailleries des docteurs relatifs à leur interprétation. Mais bon, ils peuvent néanmoins piquer notre curiosité sur tel ou tel auteur intéressant à étudier plus tard.
Profile Image for Mateus Pereira.
65 reviews9 followers
August 12, 2013
Nesse livro, publicado em 1942, Lucien Febrve desconstrói a tese formulada por Abel Lefranc de que o escritor medieval francês, François Rabelais, seria ateu. Mais do que mostrar e provar o contrário, Febvre desvenda a cosmogonia e o espírito do tempo do homem do século XVI mostrando que o conceito de ateísmo era desconhecido até então. Palavras do autor:

“Suponhamos, no entanto, um homem excepcional. Um desses homens incomuns que se mostram capazes de adiantar-se um século aos contemporâneos, de formular verdades que apenas serão aceitas como tais cinquenta, sessenta ou cem anos mais tarde. Para desprender-se dessa influência universal, dessa influência multiforme de religião, quais apoios ele encontrará – e onde encontrará apoios? Na filosofia, na ciência de seu tempo? Primeira questão, e que é preciso levantar antes de qualquer outra. Pois se, depois de estudo, nossa conclusão nos levar a pensar que nem na filosofia, nem na ciência do século XVI um contemporâneo de Rabelais (ou o próprio Rabelais [...]) podia encontrar apoios válidos para semelhante libertação [...]”.

O livro vale a pena se você tem interesse na obra de Rabelais ou na produção historiográfica de Febrve. O texto é relativamente difícil por ser muito bem documentado com referências e fontes de difícil acesso.
Profile Image for Czarny Pies.
2,851 reviews1 follower
November 13, 2014
This book is a great classic of historical writing in which Lucien Febvre attempts to refute the notion that Rabelais did not believe in God. He argues that evolution of the French language in Rabelais' time made it in impossible to think such a thing never mind articulate it.

I leave it to you to read the book in order to decide whether or not Febvre successfully makes his case. The importance of the book is not whether it exonerates Rabelais from the charges of atheism. In a century where historians accepted that the individuals world view was formed by his or her class background and material circumstances, Lucien Febvre successfully adds a third factor to the equation: the level of evolution of the language one speaks.

Lucien Febvre's theory makes eminent sense. Locke could never have written his Treatises on Government if he had had to use the same English as was available to the author of Beowulf. The consensus remains that Lucien Febvre's point about the state of the evolution of one's language having a determing role in one's thought processes still stands up very well.
Profile Image for Suzie.
443 reviews12 followers
Read
July 30, 2014
Long story short: this book is the first time I really understood what a tautological argument is.
Profile Image for Gabriel Morgan.
157 reviews10 followers
November 18, 2022
a feast! Anything which is contingent on Rabelais is important. This was a feast. Need a new copy this one now bound with rubber bands.
Profile Image for Jackson Cyril.
836 reviews92 followers
January 18, 2016
Can't say I recommend this to anyone who's not a particularly interest in French intellectual life in the 16th century. Febvre writes with Gallic flair, but the subject material isn't that appealing.
Profile Image for YL.
236 reviews16 followers
December 25, 2015
first chapter the "mrs.bridge" of history.
Profile Image for Don Janssen.
17 reviews1 follower
April 2, 2017
"Entre les façons de sentir, de penser, de parler des hommes du XVIe siècle et les nôtres, il n’y a vraiment pas de commune mesure." Le cofondateur des 'Annales d'histoire économique et sociale', Lucien Febvre, a consigné dans ce livre, auquel il a travaillé plus de 15 ans, l'essentiel de son savoir du XVIe siècle, et toute son expertise d'historien. C'est de cela qu'il s'agit ici plutôt que d'une étude consacrée à l'oeuvre Rabelais.
Néanmoins, le point de départ pour Febvre, le 'choc', a été la prise de position d'Abel Lefranc en 1923, selon lequel Rabelais aurait été un athée militant dès son premier livre (1532), un libre penseur, un précurseur des libertins du XVIIIe siècle. François Rabelais [1480/90-1553], médecin, esprit curieux et surtout l'inclassable auteur de Pantagruel (1532), Gargantua (1534), le Tiers livre (1546) et le Quart livre (1552).
Pour l'historien Febvre la question se pose ainsi: est-il possible pour un individu, même un individu exceptionnel, de se dégager du 'climat moral' dans lequel il vit? Et donc en l'occurrence, Rabelais a-t-il pu devancer son époque à tel point qu'il aurait réussi à se dérober à l'influence du Christianisme?

Pour vérifier la thèse de Lefranc Febvre considère:
1) ce qu'ont dit à ce propos les contemporains de Rabelais; Lefranc croyait y découvrir de nombreuses allusions à l'athéisme de Rabelais;
2) les déclarations de Rabelais lui-même concernant la religion;
3) les circonstances de l'époque: avait-on réellement la possibilité de n'être pas Chrétien?
4) la langue de l'époque.

1) Febvre passe en revue la littérature de l'époque, y inclus bien des 'poètes' Latins. Activité peu réjouissante: "Ayant fait un travail fastidieux, nous voudrions qu’on ne sente point, d’ici longtemps, le besoin de le refaire". Le contenu de la plupart de ces poèmes a de quoi nous surprendre: "Évoquons devant nous les contemporains de François Rabelais, leurs violences et leurs caprices, leur peu de défense contre les impressions du dehors, l’extraordinaire mobilité de leur humeur, cette étonnante promptitude à s’irriter, à s’injurier, à tirer l’épée, puis à s’embrasser et à se cajoler: tout ce qui nous explique tant de querelles pour rien, d’accusations atroces de vol et de plagiat, d’appels à la justice de Dieu et des hommes, à quoi sans intervalle succèdent d’affreux coups d’encensoir, et les plus folles comparaisons avec Homère, Pindare, Virgile et Horace. Produits naturels d’une vie toute en contrastes. Et bien plus marqués que nous ne saurions l’imaginer."
A part cela, les mots d'impie et d'athée étaient des injures communes, même Erasme et Luther ont été qualifiés ainsi. C'est comme vers 1900 lorsqu'on utilisait le mot 'anarchiste' et autour de 1930 'communiste', pour vilipender un adversaire. La conclusion de Febvre est bien qu'on ne trouve aucune indication irréfutable d'accusation d'athéisme à l'adresse de Rabelais. L'opinion de Lefranc était basée sur des allusions plutôt vagues, mais celles-ci visent souvent, selon Febvre, d'autres personnes que Rabelais.

2) Qu'en est-il des déclarations de Rabelais lui-même? Pour ce point il importe de savoir ce qui était normal au XVIe siècle, pour pouvoir distinguer si Rabelais s'écarte oui on non en certains passages de son oeuvre de l'usage normal. Or, là où Abel Lefranc repérait dans l'oeuvre rabelaisienne des signes évidents d'une attitude anti-chrétienne, Febvre montre des passages d'autres auteurs de l'époque où on lit pareilles choses 'risquées'. Voilà le point cardinal: pour nous ces énoncés semblent 'choquants', mais les contemporains de Rabelais n'en furent point scandalisés. Jusqu'avant la Réforme (1560) railler certains passages de la Bible, ou certaines pratiques de la religion chrétienne, était chose commune; les audaces d'Erasme par exemple, concernant Marie ou l'enfer, allaient bien plus loin. Que Pantagruel puisse ressusciter une personne de la mort n'était point sacrilège; d'autres auteurs racontaient des histoires du même genre.
Rabelais ne parle presque jamais de Marie, ni des Pères de l'Eglise, et il désapprouvait de la vie monastique: faisait-il partie de la Réforme, comme certains l'ont pensé? Mais dans les années 1632-1635 'la Réforme' était encore chose mal définie. Et il ne semble pas que Rabelais soutenait quelque chose comme une 'justification par la seule foi'. Ce que nous savons c'est que plus tard Rabelais n'appréciait pas beaucoup leurs idées concernant la prédestination.

3) Febvre montre l'ínfluence du Christianisme, pénétrant profondément tous les aspects de la vie quotidienne, de la naissance jusqu'à la mort: comment s'y soustraire? Il discute l'état des connaissances (historiques, scientifiques - mais selon Febvre on ne saurait vraiment parler de 'science' au XVIe siècle) et il passe en revue leurs opinions philosophiques et religieuses: "Il faut en prendre notre parti, les philosophes de ce temps se débattaient péniblement dans un inextricable réseau de difficultés, nées, pour la plupart, du désir d’accorder avec les enseignements de l’Église les doctrines de l’Aristotélisme. Ils ne sortaient pas sans déchirures d’un tel fourré d’épines." Leur horizon intellectuel n'était pas le nôtre; leur esprit ne pouvait penser nos solutions pour certains problèmes.
Comment auraient-ils pu ne pas être croyants? La critique historique du texte biblique était non-existante; personne ne considérait la Bible comme un écrit historique. Plus généralement: on n'avait pas le sens historique; on ne s'étonnait pas, par exemple, de voir sur des peintures de la prise de Jérusalem des hommes vêtus comme ils l'étaient eux-mêmes. Et pour ce qui est de la croyance aux miracles: ils n’avaient pas la notion de l’impossible. C'est-à-dire qu'il n'y avait pas de lois qui excluaient comme impossibles certains faits rapportés. De même qu'il n'y avait pour eux pas de contradiction entre naturel et surnaturel; ils ne faisaient simplement pas la distinction.

4) Avec ce dernier example nous sommes déjà dans le domaine de la langue. Febvre signale l'absence de beaucoup de mots qui nous sont familiers, depuis longtemps, dans nos discours scientifiques ou philosophiques: abstrait/concret; absolu/relatif; virtuel, insoluble, inhérent, transcendental; causalité, condition, analyse, synthèse, système, matérialisme, fatalisme, optimisme, tolérance. Il n'y avait pas de terminologie scientifique: on se servait de 'mots accordéon'. Par exemple: que voulaient-ils dire quand ils parlaient de 'la Nature'?
Bien sûr, on lisait le latin, on se servait du latin. Mais ce latin de l'antiquité romaine (vers lequel justement on s'efforçait de retourner, tout en essayant de se défaire du latin scolastique médiéval) était déscaccordé avec leur société, toute pénétrée de christianisme. Selon Febvre, si leur langue n'offrait pas à ces Français du XVIe siècle un certain concept, il leur était impossible d'aller le chercher en latin, - même si le latin offrait un terme adéquat, C'est-à-dire que leur esprit restait en quelque sorte 'enraciné' dans leur français. Donc, encore une fois: leur horizon intellectuel n'était pas le nôtre.

La conclusion de Febvre est nette: "Mettre Rabelais en tête d'une lignée de libres penseurs, c’est une insigne folie. Tout ce livre l’a montré, ou bien il ne vaut rien."

Une exagération, me semble-t-il. Même dans le cas où le lecteur ne serait pas convaincu de la thèse de Febvre, ce livre si riche et si stimulant garde toute sa valeur. L'approche de Febvre est très instructive d'un point de vue méthodique. A plusieurs reprises il montre ce qu'il faut pour éviter ce qu'il appelle le "péché capital" de l'historien: l'anachronisme. Bien sûr, cela s'applique aussi bien à toute autre époque de notre histoire, et non seulement au XVIe siècle. Mais dans ce livre il s'agit de reconstituer ce que lisaient, et comment lisaient, "les contemporains de Rabelais qui furent ses premiers lecteurs à Lyon, rue Mercière, ou à Paris, rue Saint-Jacques".
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