The Silk Road in World History

by Xinru Liu

The Silk Road was the contemporary name for a complex of ancient trade routes linking East Asia with Central Asia, South Asia, and the Mediterranean world. This network of exchange emerged along the borders between agricultural China and the steppe nomads during the Han Dynasty (206BCE-220CE), in consequence of the inter-dependence and the conflicts of these two distinctive societies. In their quest for horses, fragrances, spices, gems, glassware, and other exotics from the lands to their west, the Han Empire extended its dominion over the oases around the Takla Makan Desert and sent silk all the way to the Mediterranean, either through the land routes leading to the caravan city of Palmyra in Syria desert, or by way of northwest India, the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea, landing at Alexandria. The Silk Road survived the turmoil of the demise of the Han and Roman Empires, reached its golden age during the early middle age, when the Byzantine Empire and the Tang Empire became centers of silk culture and established the models for high culture of the Eurasian world. The coming of Islam extended silk culture to an even larger area and paved the way for an expanded market for textiles and other commodities. By the 11th century, however, the Silk Road was in decline because of intense competition from the sea routes of the Indian Ocean.Using supply and demand as the framework for analyzing the formation and development of the Silk Road, the book examines the dynamics of the interactions of the nomadic pastoralists with sedentary agriculturalists, and the spread of new ideas, religions, and values into the world of commerce, thus illustrating the cultural forces underlying material transactions. This effort at tracing the interconnections of the diverse participants in the transcontinental Silk Road exchange will demonstrate that the world had been linked through economic and ideological forces long before the modern era.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, World History, Asia, China, Middle East, Ancient History

168 pages, Kindle Edition

First published June 10, 2010

About the author

Xinru Liu (born 1951) is an associate professor of early Indian history and world history at The College of New Jersey, and has held since 1993 a full professorship at the Institute of World History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Reviews

[Bettie · Rating 2 out of 5]

Opening: From the time Eurasians started using polished stone tools to plant and harvest crops and to keep domesticated animals, they began to split into two distinct societies divided by the Tianshan, Altai, and Caucasus mountain ranges. To the fertile south, people became farmers. But on the Eurasian steppe, people continued to herd livestock such as cattle, sheep, and horses. Their herds fed in the cool mountains in summer, where the grass was lush, and were shepherded in winter to warmer valleys and plains. Each group of nomads grazed its animals according to a fixed annual pattern. However, climate changes and political conflicts with other nomads or with agricultural societies to the south often forced nomads out of their normal rounds.


After Dragon Hunter: Roy Chapman Andrews & the Central Asiatic Expeditions I fancied more non-fic across the vast central land-mass, evoking memories of some lovely purchases in the Silk Road Market, Beijing.

This book, although short, was way too dry for me summon up any enthusiasm for the subject. Dut-doo.

NEXT!

[Yigal Zur · Rating 3 out of 5]

good introduction for who want to know about the evolution of the silk road. a lot of facts. but too dry when you consider how amazing this road had been.

[Mark · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is not so much a history of the Silk Road as it is of the empires that presided over it and the consumption it enabled for their elites. It’s a good overview for people desiring an introduction to the history of the region, but anyone seeking a more detailed analysis of the Silk Road itself would be better served reading one of the books listed in the “Further Reading” section.

[Jenny]

Perfect introduction to a corner of history little-known in the West.

[Mary · Rating 3 out of 5]

Valerie Hansen's Silk Road book focused fairly narrowly on the oasis towns of Central Asia, looked at specific documents or artifacts, and argued for a limited amount trade. This book looks more widely at the early Eurasian trade and implies there was quite a lot of silk -- and religious ideas -- moving across the Roman/Byzantine Empire, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and China.

Of the books I've read recently about this area, this was the most accessible, but also the least detailed. What details there are are often about the "edges" - e.g. there are more details about the silk trade in the Byzantine Empire than there are about Samarkand. There is more detail about silk and sumptuary laws than there is about the process of trade or traders. Even where there are details, there isn't much in the way of quantitative information.

In retrospect, I probably should have read this book first and then tackled more detailed works on Central Asia.

[Jim Walker · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is history in broad strokes, over centuries. But who knew? The turmoil of history that followed this trade route to/from China is high drama. But trade must flow, and it did. The book is a good introduction to the importance of the Silk Road and how it impacted civilizations.

[Bookish Sisters · Rating 3 out of 5]

A really solid introductory book. It has a really good overview of the topics it discusses, if at some points slightly narrative. A good read though.

[Nurhilal · Rating 3 out of 5]

It's a really good book as an introduction on the Silk Road. It's easy to read and understand. However, it's is written from the perspective of China and their role in the Silk Road. Some might find that not completely neutral.

[Iris · Rating 2 out of 5]

2,5 stars. An interesting read but overal disappointing. Especially the first two chapters felt more like a series of facts that did not have much to do with the chapters' titles. For me, chapter 3 and 4 were the most interesting because here I finally felt the author wasn't rushing to put as many facts on paper as possible. The use of ancient and medieval literary sources was very interesting. However, I did feel like the author relied on these sources a bit too much; I would've liked to hear about more archeological sources as well. The last chapter ended very abrupt, as if the author was not allowed to write any more.

In the end this is still an ok book to read as an introduction to the peoples that used and lived near the silk road, but when I finished this book I was left with more questions than answers.

[J. Johnson · Rating 5 out of 5]

A friend who knows I like histories of every kind gave me this book as a gift. I approached it from a preconceived notion, expecting it to be one of those little academic niche studies of limited scope (suitable for a master's thesis back in my day); however, it turned out to be a little book with a big message embedded in its well-researched facts and figures. Suddenly, I became aware that I was learning how and why empires, religions, and trade were intertwined and how one changed the other over the centuries since recorded history. And because the author remained objective (as a good academic should), I came away with a more realistic and optimistic understanding of how Asia (writ large) and the Middle East ebbed, flowed and reinvented itself time and again. This is not a dry study; it is an enlightened world view revealed by a targeted laser shot through time.

[Kavya]

mix and match of different material in a more or less chronological order; Buddhism sections are especially interesting. But I am not quite sure how relevant each of the themes were, or whether there were any clear cut themes. The main issue with Silk Road stuff is that there seems to be no main actor who can bear the burden of agency, aside from the Han Chinese who have left written records of their imperial agents.

[Sara Razek · Rating 4 out of 5]

A very engaging book on the evolution of the Silk Road, and its pivotal role in the promotion of trade and connecting empires in world history. Also, the book offers a very good introduction to the history of Central Asia which is, unfortunately, insufficiently examined!

[Dolf van der Haven · Rating 2 out of 5]

A politico-economic history of the regions around the Silk Road. The author mostly presents endless facts without much context, let alone other aspects, such as people and culture. It makes the book very dry and unappealing.

[Pei-jean Lu · Rating 4 out of 5]

A quick overview of the most famous trade route in history. If you’re unfamiliar with the Silk Road then this is a good start. I hacks a higher expectation hoping that it would be a much longer book, but all in all a good read

[Mary · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a topic which while it fascinates me is not likely to be everyone's cup of tea. It mixes history, art, culture, and travel.

[Tsai Wei-chieh · Rating 3 out of 5]

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2010年由牛津大學出版社出版的《世界史上的絲路》（The Silk Road in World History）是為了歐美大學生與一般大眾所寫的輕學術讀物，介紹絲路的起源與衰微，及其在世界史上的地位。如果讀者絲路歷史已經有一些接觸，而想要進一步了解的話，這本書的長度倒是很適合。
本書作者劉欣如曾任中國社科院世界歷史研究所研究員，現任美國紐澤西學院歷史系副教授，以中印文化交流與絲路歷史研究著稱。在本書中，作者描繪了一個傳統學界對於絲路的印象，將絲綢視為絲路歷史的主角來貫穿全書，旁及宗教與其他物品的傳播。簡而言之，對作者而言，絲路的歷史是一部走向衰微的歷史。
第一章「中國放眼西方」從絲路東端說起，談的是中國讀者比較熟悉的故事。作者從西元前六百年騎馬技術開始在歐亞草原傳布說起，首先勾勒了中國戰國時代北方農耕人群與草原游牧之間的早期交流，特別是馬匹與軍事技術，例如趙武靈王胡服騎射一事。接著敘述了定居的秦漢帝國與游牧的匈奴帝國之間的競逐，特別是漢武帝遣張騫通西域一事。張騫的出使讓漢朝與月氏（位於今烏茲別克）得以建立關係。後來雙邊的貿易開始活絡起來。羅馬的玻璃器具、印度的棉織品、香料與寶石也開始輸入長安。而漢朝的絲織品也開始銷售西方。這正是絲路得名之因。另外出於軍事需求，漢朝也對中亞的馬匹需求孔急，也因此才會有遠征大宛（位���今費爾干納地區）。而這些西域的奇珍異物也使漢朝士人對西方感到好奇。東漢班超遣甘英往大秦（即羅馬帝國）卻未能渡海完成使命，則是在中外交流史上傳頌不絕的故事。
第二章「羅馬放眼東方」則從絲路西端說起，內容是羅馬帝國對於中國的想像。當時的羅馬帝國對於中國與蠶絲了解很少，例如羅馬學者老普林尼（Pliny the Elder）在他的《自然史》一書中就誤認為蠶絲是中國人在森林中採集的毛料。西元前一世紀羅馬從共和走向帝制時，也同時往東方擴張。羅馬帝國的興起也帶來了對大量奢侈品的需求，其中也包括中國的絲綢以及產自東亞與阿拉伯的乳香和沒藥等香料。因此羅馬帝國對於東方的重要商隊據點加強控制。而位於波斯北部的游牧民族所建立的安息帝國（the Parthian empire）則成為其主要對手。作者並且以《紅海航海記錄》（Periplus of the Red Sea，又稱厄立特里亞航海記錄）為材料，介紹了如位於敘利亞的佩特拉（Petra）、巴爾米拉（Palmyra），阿拉伯南部的穆薩（Muza）與印度的婆盧羯車（Barygaza）與巴別爾孔（Barbaricum）等海上貿易據點。而羅馬的海上貿易與中亞絲路貿易兩條路線最後正是在婆盧羯車與巴別爾孔兩地交會。
第三章「貴霜帝國與佛教」則討論貴霜帝國（the Kushan empire）崇奉佛教與絲路商業興盛的關係。西元一世紀中葉代月氏而興起的貴霜帝國（Bactria）成功以一個遊牧民族政權之姿成功控制了以定居農業為主的大夏地區。貴霜帝國的傳統宗教以祖先崇拜為主，並且信奉上天。然而貴霜國王對於其他宗教採取開放的態度，因此希臘神祇、祆教與佛教等在其境內都受到保護，特別是大乘佛教在貴霜王朝治下得到長足的發展。在其治下興盛的國際貿易與繁榮的都市都有助於佛教向印度以外的地區推廣，例如佛寺常常成為商人行旅的休息站。絲綢也成為一種地方交易的貨幣。值得一提的是，早期許多來到中國弘揚佛法的僧侶皆來自伊朗的安息帝國，這也為後來景教與摩尼教傳入中國鋪路。
第四章「黃金時代的露頭」則提到早期由漢朝、貴霜、安息與羅馬等帝國所創建的絲綢之路，至西元三世紀時衰微。主因是在當時這些帝國先後崩潰。在漢朝與西羅馬帝國衰亡後，絲綢之路就由波斯的薩珊王朝（the Sassanid dynasty）與信奉摩尼教的粟特（Sogdians）商人所掌控。西元五至八世紀為粟特商人的黃金時代。當時薩珊王朝的錢幣與絲綢成為絲路國際貿易中的主要通貨。西元六世紀東羅馬帝國（或稱拜占庭帝國）在查士丁尼大帝（Justinian the Great）的統治下重振聲勢，而絲綢則在宗教與政治上成為重要的象徵物品而需求大增，特別是紫色的絲綢後來被查士丁尼大帝諭令成為國家獨佔的物資，並且引入養蠶業，但是其規模仍然不足與中國相提並論。而當時最為風行的絲織品之一就是產自布哈拉（Bukhara）附近之贊丹村的贊丹尼奇（Zandaniji），其紋飾以鳥、羊等動物為主，但是其顏料與絲線則來自中國。贊丹尼奇遍布於整個歐亞的考古遺跡當中，甚至見於青海的早期吐蕃貴族墓穴中。因此可以說，在當時充滿政治動亂的時代中，絲路貿易仍然維持不墜，表示絲路已經發展成熟。其活力是來自於市場的需求，而不像過去僅仰賴帝國的支持。
第五章「歐亞絲綢市場的轉變」討論的是在西元七世紀至十二世紀間，歐亞市場的轉變與新貨物的流行。在這個時代中，絲路東部與中部的局勢都有所改變。東方有唐朝的統一，另外伴隨著伊斯蘭教的創立，在中東則有阿拉伯帝國（即中國古代所稱的大食國）興起，並且東進控制了中亞地區。而且到了西元八世紀末期，絲織業的技術已經在中亞、中東與北非等地廣為流傳，中國獨佔的情勢不再。然而阿拉伯帝國對於絲綢的接受度一開始並不太高。早期在倭馬亞王朝（the Umayyad Caliphate）時代，由非穆斯林製作的絲綢織錦常常以人與動物的形象做為裝飾，這就有觸犯了偶像崇拜的禁忌，其次則是穿戴絲織品是否過於奢侈的爭議。這些爭議直到後來的阿拔斯王朝（the Abbasid Caliphate）才逐漸消失。伊斯蘭教盛行於中亞與中東的結果，改變了絲路的人文地理。在貿易路途上清真寺逐漸取代佛寺，此外波斯語也取代了粟特語成為絲路上的通用語。絲綢不再是唯一主要的貨品，瓷器與茶逐漸成為國際貿易的新寵。而隨著海上貿易的逐漸發達，駱駝與馬匹也不再是有利可圖的運輸工具。
第六章「蒙古與絲路的黃昏」則討論了蒙古帝國的興起與歐亞世界的新局面。蒙古人征服了中國、中亞、中東與俄羅斯。蒙古帝國的創建者成吉思汗也大力推廣商業。蒙古帝國的首都哈剌和林在當時也成為絲路貨物的集散地。蒙古人特別喜歡伊朗與中亞河中地區所製作的「納失失」（nasij），其特徵為使用金絲線於織錦上。另外中亞河中地區的絲織工匠也被遣送到華北的蕁麻林與弘州等地生產絲織品。另外，雖然蒙古帝國並不是一個海上強權，但是蒙古大汗也十分注意海上交通與貿易，許多西亞商人來到中國東南沿海定居經商，蒙古政府也從中徵稅獲利。然而在1330年代，饑饉與洪水在中國境內肆虐，並且導致民變。1368年明軍攻陷大都，元朝退回漠北。而其他蒙古汗國也相繼崩潰。中亞仰賴陸路貿易的商隊城鎮與宗教設施逐漸衰微。這也是陸上絲路的黃昏。
簡言之，對本書作者劉欣如而言，絲路在世界史上的歷史就像是一齣美人遲暮的悲劇。她曾經耀眼過，但是這到了十四世紀後期蒙古四大汗國解體，陸路商業失去了重要性後，就淡出了歷史舞臺。這也是傳統學界的看法。然而作者在書首自言，絲路是一個連結中國與地中海的陸路與海路商業系統（第10頁）。就算如作者所言，絲路的陸路貿易走向黃昏，但是海路貿易似乎仍舊持續發展。這樣一來，讀者很容易產生一個問題，即絲路是否真的如作者所言，在十四世紀時就已經衰微？針對這個問題，建議可參照James Millward所寫的The Silk Road: A Very Short Introduction，讀者們將會看到與傳統敘事不同的絲路歷史。

[ilya murychev · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book is written in a fairly clear manner. Covers the Silk Road by era, but specifically from the point of view of the silk trade. Quite an interesting approach. Not at all similar to Valerie Hansen's approach. Gives a completely different look at the history of silk production and “consumption” in the world throughout history. Another insight from this book: silk production was not only in China, but also in Persia and Constantinople. But what Constantinople had was a monopoly of colouring dyeing purple, the colour of power. Only the emperor and his wife had the right to wear purple clothing. To help Buddhism spread throughout the empire, the Kushan kingdom carried out a religious reform and wrote the book of the Lotus Sutra, in which they democratized religion and brought it closer to the merchants.


Книга написана в довольно ясной форме. Освещает Шелковый Путь по эпохам, но именно с точки зрения торговли шелком. Довольно интересный подход. Совсем не похож на подход Valerie Hansen . Дает совсем другой взгляд на историю производства и "потребления" шелка в мире на протяжении истории. Еще из инсайтов этой книги: шелкопроизводство было не только в Китае, но и Персии и Константинополе. Но что было в Константинополе -это монополия окраски в пурпурный цвет, цвет власти. Только император и его жена имели право носить пурпурную одежду. Чтобы помочь буддизму распространиться по империи в Кушанском царсвтве провели реформу религии и написали книгу Сутра Лотоса, в которой демократизировали религии и приблизили ее ближе к торговцам.

[Yağmur Arda Alkan · Rating 5 out of 5]

ive read a lot of things about the silk roads but this is by far my favorite.

[Ryan Patrick · Rating 2 out of 5]

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[Jameson · Rating 4 out of 5]

it was vey interesting, I learned a lot about the Silk Road.