Playing the Numbers: Gambling in Harlem between the Wars

by Shane White

The phrase “Harlem in the 1920s” evokes images of the Harlem Renaissance, or of Marcus Garvey and soapbox orators haranguing crowds about politics and race. Yet the most ubiquitous feature of Harlem life between the world wars was the game of “numbers.” Thousands of wagers, usually of a dime or less, would be placed on a daily number derived from U.S. bank statistics. The rewards of “hitting the number,” a 600-to-1 payoff, tempted the ordinary men and women of the Black Metropolis with the chimera of the good life. Playing the Numbers tells the story of this illegal form of gambling and the central role it played in the lives of African Americans who flooded into Harlem in the wake of World War I. For a dozen years the “numbers game” was one of America’s rare black-owned businesses, turning over tens of millions of dollars every year. The most successful “bankers” were known as Black Kings and Queens, and they lived royally. Yet the very success of “bankers” like Stephanie St. Clair and Casper Holstein attracted Dutch Schultz, Lucky Luciano, and organized crime to the game. By the late 1930s, most of the profits were being siphoned out of Harlem.Playing the Numbers reveals a unique dimension of African American culture that made not only Harlem but New York City itself the vibrant and energizing metropolis it was. An interactive website allows readers to locate actors and events on Harlem’s streets.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Race

320 pages, Kindle Edition

First published January 1, 2010

About the author

SHANE WHITE is the Challis Professor of History and an Australian Professorial Fellow in the History Department at the University of Sydney specializing in African-American history. He has authored or co-authored five books, including "Playing the Numbers", and collaborated in the construction of the website Digital Harlem. Each project has won at least one important prize for excellence from institutions as varied as the American Historical Association and the American Library Association. He lives in Sydney, Australia.

Reviews

[Jessica · Rating 4 out of 5]

Playing the Numbers offers a deep dive into Harlem’s numbers gambling. Filled with humor and flair, the authors trace the evolution of numbers gambling during the interwar years and the ways in which it impacted and reflected culture in the black metropolis. The authors’ affection for Harlem is apparent and while it occasionally leads to less than subtle jibes at white America, they successfully explain not only why the game is significant but demonstrate its use as “a prism through which to examine African American culture in the most important city in the world.” Many of the sources and individuals highlighted will be familiar to scholars but skilled story telling makes it feel new. That said, it is the authors’ mining of the stock exchange records that adds a new dimension to the story by not only reinforcing the central claim to the game’s significance but also tying it to Gotham’s business history. As a result, the work sits comfortably at the intersection of business and social history.

[Keith · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is an entertaining history of the numbers or Clearing House game played in Harlem early in the 20th century. It is a tribute to the entrepreneurial spirit of Harlem's African American population, and their boundless optimism to “make a hit” despite centuries of discrimination and racism.

The book includes an interesting history of the illegal lottery plus the memorable characters and their stories that bring the lottery to life. Although presumably an academic book written by a committee of four writers, the writing is clear and entertaining.

I highly recommend this book to anyone interested in American history.

[Elizabeth Higginbotham · Rating 5 out of 5]

Playing the Numbers: Gambling in Harlem Between the Wars by Shane White, Stephen Garton, Stephen Robertson, Graham White is an amazing book about an era when Jim Crow shaped the lives of many Black people, even those who migrated from the South and the Caribbean but could find little work in New York. These four historians from Australia used various records, including courts reports, newspapers, and the depiction of the numbers business in novels, songs, and even film to tell about how people worked within the margins left to them by White Americans to build community and also earn money.

Gambling was common, but the number policy was a game that took shape in Harlem, initially many groups were involved, but it reshaped along racial and ethnic lines. During the 1920, there were Black bankers who collected bets and paid if people hit the number, which you could read in the Clearing House report.

in Harlem in 1920 or 1921, the numbers took off and rapidly insinuated itself into the fabric of everyday life. In the morning people were placing their bets, less frenetic afternoon and early evening when winners were paid. Numbers took on a central role in economic life of African Americans in NYC at a time when there were no Black banks in the community and in fact it was hard to get loans. People generally were betting dimes and quarters, but if they hit it could be scores of money and occasional even hundreds. To people with irregular work schedules and pay, this fit the pattern of their lives. They also did not trust White banks, where they could open saving accounts, but rarely could get loans.

In the 1920s, few Black people were employed in Harlem. They left the community for services jobs and other work around the city. Black bankers, the big ones were Kings and Queens, hired people to act as runners and collectors, often securing a percentage of the take. These bankers were often “race men,” thus invested in the community, support institutions, loaning money to legitimate businesses and giving to charity. They displayed their wealth in buying cars, suits, jewelry and living in lavish apartments.

Initially on the margins, by 1924, the numbers was not just something a few Spanish speaking barber shops were doing, but it was mainstream. You could see people putting their heads together and looking at slips. Runners and collectors had regular schedules. Winthrop Lane in the Survey Graphic in 1925, an issue devoted to Harlem and the Renaissance, declare the numbers Harlem’s most popular indoor sport. Some bankers had short careers, but others were around for a long time, making investments in apartment buildings and other enterprises.

It could not be ignored by White gangsters, especially as they were facing the end of Prohibition. Initially they thought they could squeeze people of color out, but it was more complicated. Some Jewish and Italian gangsters purchased stores that were fronts for taking bets, but the residents already giving much of their money to White people resisted. Dutch Schultz moved in paying off debts when independent bankers faced a crisis. He later arranged partnerships with Black bankers and their operations.

Schultz wanted to pay salaries, rather than a percentage of the take. Black Kings, now partners, were reduced to $100 or $200 a week. They had to work with “shadows” who made sure they kept receipts and disbursements. They were fined if they did not meet targets. Following an earlier model of Kassall, who tried to move into the business, Schultz move the collection of bets into stores rather than the streets with runners and collectors. These owners were white and earned a weekly stipend. These changes made the numbers like other businesses in Harlem, controlled by White people with the money leaving Harlem.

Schultz’s arrangement was horrible during the Depression. To people in Harlem, Black bankers were what was then known as “race me,” champions of black enterprise and fervent believers in the importance of the Black community in northern cities. They also had deep pockets. During a time when Black people could not give bank loans, they made a huge difference—they were the bank. That is why the White takeover of numbers in Harlem during some of the worst years of the Depression was such a disaster for the community.

Once Thomas Dewey took down Tammany Hall boss James Himes for protection, White gangsters faded. It looked like the smaller bankers who never used that violence returned to the market. However, it was all around the city, but Harlem the most profitable site. Yet, most of the profits left Harlem. There was nostalgia for the old days, when colored people controlled the bank, then the money stayed in Harlem.

The decade between the wars was important in many ways, as the numbers were behind sports, recreation, and other entertainment as well as employing hundreds of people. Hitting the number helped people pay their debts and make some purchases. Yet, because it was illegal, it lacked legitimacy. However, as Bumby Johnson, a long time banker, said “White people ain’t left us nothin’ but the underworld. They made hoods and thieves outta every nigger that’s got guts.” Many insights about systemic racism are in this book.

[Mike · Rating 3 out of 5]

A none too shabby history of the policy game in old-time Harlem, particularly considering the fact that it was written by four Australian academics! There are some vivid characters brought to life in these pages, any one of which merits their own book. Shining in particular is Stephanie St. Clair the Numbers Queen, born in Martinique, and brave enough to stick it to Dutch Schultz to the last penny to control the Harlem numbers racket. There is also Casper Holstein, a prominent African-American philanthropist who turned his numbers winnings back into the community, and Lester Walker, the only black journalist at the New York World, who covered the Harlem beat. The authors also give a cursory run through of Bumpy Johnson, Harlem's most famous, and fearsome gangster, though they fail to mention Larry Fishburne's terrific film "Hoodlum" in citing Bumpy, while remembering his brief mention in "The Wire" and a minor appearance in "American Gangster."

This book is a fine, if dense at times, thumbnail sketch of the policy game, and covers many fascinating aspects, but I think a book focused on the lives of the players would have been invariably more interesting.

[Lawrence · Rating 3 out of 5]

I very much enjoyed the subject matter of this book. It makes me yearn for a definitive look at organized crime in Harlem.

My star ratings are so low because the book is terribly edited. There are four co-authors and several characters, ideas and such are introduced and described repeatedly. Distracting to me, perhaps it won't bother you as much...