Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition

by James K. Hoffmeier

Scholars of the Hebrew Bible have in the last decade begun to question the historical accuracy of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt, as described in the book of Exodus. The reason for the rejection of the exodus tradition is said to be the lack of historical and archaeological evidence in Egypt. Those advancing these claims, however, are not specialists in the study of Egyptian history, culture, and archaeology. In this pioneering book, James Hoffmeier examines the most current Egyptological evidence and argues that it supports the biblical record concerning Israel in Egypt.

Genres: History, Biblical Studies, Old Testament, Archaeology, Christianity, Nonfiction, Egyptology

536 pages, Kindle Edition

First published September 18, 1997

Reviews

[Nicholas Meriwether · Rating 5 out of 5]

Hoffmeier makes a powerful case for the authenticity of the Exodus as portrayed in the Bible. As someone with equal footing in biblical studies, archaeology, and Egyptology, he is uniquely capable of addressing the questions associated with the Israelites leaving Egypt. Since there are no Egyptian texts which say something to the effect of ‘the Hebrews were here,’ skeptical scholars have posited that the whole exodus is merely fiction. However, Hoffmeier is a methodological hound, and will not let such accusations go unchallenged by those pesky things called data and methodological coherence. He demonstrates that there were Asiatic people in Egypt during the time the Israelites were reported to be there, that some Semitic people would even get high rankings in society or trained in royal schools (think Joseph and Moses), and that these Semitic people were then forced to do slave labor for massive building projects. His treatment of the plagues seems to have a slight non-supernatural bias, but then does well to acknowledge and explicate the theological implications of the plagues, particularly Yahweh’s judgment and control over Pharaoh, whom was believed to be a god. He also deals with geographical questions, like the location of the Re(e)d sea crossing and the location of Egyptian toponyms. One of the methodological issues in archaeological studies is how some scholars misidentify ancient places, and then discredit corroborating theories. He does due diligence to review the latest data and make modest conclusions based on what is available. There is always the ‘we just haven’t dug it up yet.’ While source critics try to relocate the Exodus material later and later into Israel’s history, Hoffmeier shows that these reconstructions would have a substantial amount of Egyptian influence particular to the time of the exodus. All in all, it seems more likely that the Israelites just knew their own experience in Egypt and wrote it down as it appears in the Bible.

[Jonathan Brown · Rating 5 out of 5]

Now that's more like it! This book by Old Testament scholar James K. Hoffmeier, with his experience in archaeological excavations in Egypt and with ancient Egyptian literature, is, characteristically for him, a treasure trove. He identifies numerous reflections of Egyptian culture underlying the narratives we have in the latter portions of Genesis and the earlier portions of Exodus.

Although Hoffmeier never directly suggests a specific identification for any of the pharaohs featured in Genesis or Exodus, he does provide a wealth of information helpful for situating the text. After noting that the price for which Joseph's brothers sold him into slavery matches known slave-prices for 2000-1500 BC but not later, Hoffmeier goes on to suggest that "Asiatics" such as the family of Jacob could have plausibly entered Egypt late in the Middle Kingdom or early in the Hyksos period; that Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 illustrates the plausibility of an 'Asiatic' serving as a domestic servant (ḥry-pr, "he-who-is-over-the-house") and even household overseer (imy-r pr) in an Egyptian estate such as Potiphar's; that, even in the Middle Kingdom, the notion of Semites rising to positions of lofty power within the pharaonic administration is attested well enough (e.g., Aper-el, vizier to Amenhotep III); that the names we find in the Joseph story are recognizably Egyptian (Potiphar = *Didi-Re -> pȝ di pȝ rʻ = "He-whom-Re-has-given"; Asenath = iw.s-n.t = "She-who-belongs-to-you"; "[Joseph] Zaphenath-paneah = dd(w) n.f 'Ip-ʻnh = "[Joseph] who is called 'He-who-recognizes-life'"); that the mention of a "pharoah" without a specified name fits pre-tenth-century-BC practice; that the "magicians" (Heb. ḥarṭummîm) were the Egyptian "chief lecter priests" (ḥry-tp or hry-ḥb) who studied ritual texts (including dream interpretation manuals) in the "House of Life"; that the "birthday of Pharaoh" in Genesis 40:20 was the "festival of the king's appearance" (ḥb nsw ḫʻw) celebrating the anniversary of his accession; that the description of Joseph's investiture in Genesis 41:43-42 reflects contemporary Egyptian art of investiture rites; that this story and the later accounts of tabernacle construction use a Hebrew word specifically referring to Egyptian linen; that the eventual repression of Semites after the Hyksos expulsion is quite likely; and, of course, that it is perfectly plausible for Moses to have been raised alongside assorted foreign princes in the Egyptian royal nursery as a "child of the nursery" (hrd n kȝp) like Aper-el. All of this lends support to the historical plausibility of the Genesis and Exodus accounts of ancient Israelites in Egypt; Hoffmeier adduces assorted features of the text that become difficult to explain if one hypothesizes composition after the New Kingdom period.

The latter portion of the book, dealing with the life of Moses but especially the exodus and the wilderness period, is covered with much greater detail and excellence in Hoffmeier's later book Ancient Israel in Sinai: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wilderness Tradition . The present volume was somewhat slow-going at times, when Hoffmeier spent page after page detailing the views of this scholar or that scholar throughout the past couple centuries (necessary though that often is); but when he presented simply the evidence he finds most compelling, that's where the book really shines.

[Timothy Bertolet]

Detailed and not for the faint of heart although an industrious layperson will reap a huge payoff from a careful read. It is a good book look at the evidence for Israel in Ancient Egypt. Defends the reliability of the the Exodos and the Biblical narrative. Hoffmeier looks at archeological evidence, our knowledge of cities, forts and canals in Ancient Egypt. As a whole Hoffmeier weighs the historical evidence. Some readers will be bothered by his conservative stance, although he notes many scholars who are Egyptologist or of scholars primarily of other ANE cultures are far less skeptical of the text than those who are Biblical scholars first. Other readers will be bothered because he isn't conservative enough, e.g. taking a late date for the exodus, not seing the Re(e)d Sea as the Gulf of Suez or Aqaba. In all Hoffmeier is even handed. His knowledge of Egpyt, background, archeology and ANE lit will be a help to any student or scholar of Exodus.

[Steven H · Rating 5 out of 5]

A GENERALLY “CONSERVATIVE” SUPPORT OF THE BIBLICAL NARRATIVES OF ISRAEL’S ORIGINS

James Hoffmeier is professor of Biblical Studies and Archaeology at Wheaton College.

He wrote in the Preface to this 1996 book, “The biblical stories about Israel’s origins in Egypt are so well known to people of Europe and the English-speaking world that one hardly has to rehearse the details… By and large, historians over the centuries have considered these individuals and the events in which they participated to be historical. The advent of archaeology and the deciphering of cuneiform inscriptions… [made] the fathers and mothers of Israel come alive… But subsequent investigations of these sites reversed earlier interpretations, and the evidence that originally appeared to confirm the stories concerning Israel’s origin was met instead by embarrassing silence; for some this implied the repudiation of the Hebrew tradition… direct evidence for the events and figures of Genesis and Exodus remains elusive… in the middle of the nineteenth century … many western scholars considered these tales to be sagas, legends, and etiologies, but not historical records.

"In response to this critical climate, the biblical archaeologist William Foxwell Albright and his followers set a positive tone… However, a new generation of skeptics, or historical minimalists, have come to the fore over the past twenty years… In this book, I will challenge the premise that the absence of archaeological evidence can prove what did or did not happen in Bible history.” (Pg. vii-viii)

He notes, “The Albright-[G. Ernest] Wright synthesis has been rightly challenged by virtually every recent scholarly investigation concerned with the origins of Israel debate… its critics have widely assumed that the ‘conquest’ theory of Albright-Wright and their followers is one and the same as the ‘biblical’ description. Therefore the repudiation of the former has resulted in the abrogation of the latter… Wright… often overstated or went beyond what the biblical text actually claimed...” (Pg. 33)

He adds, “A careful reading of the text of Joshua suggests a far more modest military outcome than those advanced by twentieth-century biblical scholars either supporting or critiquing the conquest model. So it appears that the real contradiction was between the model and the archaeological record, not the record and the narrative of Joshua and Judges. The conquest model has become something of a straw man that ostensibly represented the biblical record, the latter being guilty by association with the former.” (Pg. 36)

He states, “When Joshua is viewed as a piece of Near Eastern Military writing, and its literary character is properly understood, the idea of a group of tribes coming to Canaan, using some military force, partially taking a number of cities and areas over a period of some years, destroying (burning) just three cities, and coexisting alongside the Canaanites and other ethnic groups for a period of time before the beginnings of monarchy, does not require blind faith." (Pg. 43-44)

He observes about Israel in Egypt, “scholars are faced with a dilemma not unlike that encountered in Canaan with the absence of evidence for an invasion by Israel and have arrived at a similar conclusion: the lack of evidence means the events described in Genesis and Exodus are retrojections of a later period and do not reflect historical reality. Indeed, no one has been able to identify any unimpeachable evidence in Egypt, either historical or archaeological, to support the biblical accounts of the sojourn and exodus events…The biblical evidence… consistently supports the testimony of the book of Exodus, and yet proof from Egypt is lacking. How do we deal with this dilemma?” (Pg. 53)

He ultimately concludes, “Is the picture portrayed in Genesis 39 through Exodus 15 compatible with what is known from Egyptian history? I think we have answered that in the affirmative… Could a Semite like Joseph have advanced to such a high post in the Egyptian court. The evidence is clear. If … a Semitic official such as Aper-el could occupy the office of the Vizer of Lower Egypt… then surely the same could have occurred to a Hebrew named Joseph anytime from the Thirteenth Dynasty through the Hyksos Period… In a similar vein.. during this period many foreign princes were reared and schooled in the Egyptian court…

"It is my belief that Moses was a product of this institution… His birth story… attests to the presence of terms with Egyptian etymologies, suggesting that this unit had an unquestionable Egyptian connection… Finally, important geographical questions were answered that demonstrate that a coherent and singular route is described in Exodus and Numbers 33 for the departure from Egypt to Sinai, despite not being able to plot it on a map with absolute certainty…

"Because of the close connection between figures like Joseph and Moses and the Egyptian court, it seems that there is reason to believe the biblical tradition that ascribes to Moses the ability to record events, compile itineraries, and other scribal activities. This is not to say that he is the sole author of the Pentateuch, but he cannot be ruled out as having had the role in its formation that the Bible reports… The body of evidence reviewed in this book provides indirect evidence which shows that the main points of the Israel in Egypt and Exodus narratives are indeed plausible.” (Pg. 223-226)

Some readers will find this book far too “traditional” in its approach; but those studying biblical archaeology and the early history of Israel will nevertheless likely find it most interesting.

[Etienne OMNES · Rating 3 out of 5]

Israel in Egypt est un livre de James K Hoffmeier qui vise à montrer la cohérence entre le récit biblique et l'état des connaissances en égyptologie et donc l'historicité de l'Exode.

Les chapitres 1 et 2 racontent où en est le débat sur l'historicité de Josué et la conquête de Canaan par les hébreux. Une introduction aux différentes théories actuelles.
Le chapitre 3 montre l'historicité de la présence de sémites comme Abraham ou Isaac en Egypte.
Le chapitre 4 montre la cohérence entre l'histoire de Joseph et l'égyptologie actuelle.
Le chapitre 5 démontre l'existence de l'esclavage des sémites en Egypte, et la cohérence du contexte d'ouverture de l'Exode avec l'histoire égyptienne.
Le chapitre 6 étudie les éléments égyptiens de Moïse et l'épisode des dix plaies d'Egypte, et montre que l'auteur de l'Exode connaît très bien les réalités égyptiennes.
Le chapitre 7 et 8 retrace l'itinéraire d'Israël dans sa fuite hors d'Egypte.
Le chapitre 9 traite de la location de la fameuse mer rouge/mer des roseaux.

Dans l'ensemble, une lecture passionnante mais qui a tendance à se disperser un peu dans son discours. Il aborde une quantité monumentale de discussions scientifiques en très peu de pages, et il n'hésite pas à partager même les arguments les plus techniques. Le lecteur est donc obligé de faire un tri pénible pour savoir si cette information là est utile ou non, et demande un effort pour "cartographier" cet argument (car il aborde parfois des points secondaires à son argumentation principale). En dehors de ce défaut d'écriture, il faut reconnaître que Hoffmeier a bien lu tout ce qu'il fallait lire, et l'on ressort très impressionné de ce petit tour d'égyptologie.

[Michael Boling · Rating 5 out of 5]

The Bible relates real history. With that said, there are always efforts by those who seek to discredit Scripture as well as those within liberal elements of biblical scholarship to claim that the historical record reveals something other than what is recorded in the Bible. One such historical element that has come into question is sojourn and slavery of Israel in Egypt. Dr. James Hoffmeier in his book Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition examines the scholarly debate and what ends up being a plethora of historical evidence that supports the Biblical record.

Some may wonder why the pursuit of historical proof for the Exodus tradition is so important. After all, even if some of the facts noted in Scripture are said to have no observable historical support, the theological principle of God delivering His people from bondage, albeit not actual physical bondage, still remains factual, right? The answer to that question would be a resounding no. Furthermore, as noted by Hoffmeier, “For centuries the Israelite exodus from Egypt has been considered to be a historical event central to the formation of ancient Israel as a nation and its faith.” Historical accuracy, meaning demonstrating an actual period of enslavement followed by an actual departure from that bondage by the hand of God, is clearly an issue of great importance.

Hoffmeier first examines various theories that have been presented by scholars in relation to the exodus tradition. He reveals the creeping in of skepticism among scholars, in particular liberal scholars who attempted to point to a lack of historical and archaeological evidence to support the biblical record. Hoffmeier then takes a look at the various perspectives on the origins of Israel as a nation, in particular that of the conquering of Canaan, given the taking of the Promised Land is of course connected to Israel departing Egypt. I most appreciated Hoffmeier’s simple yet profound statement that “When Joshua is viewed as a piece of Near Eastern military writing, and its literary character is properly understood, the idea of a group of tribes coming to Canaan, using some military force, partially taking a number of cities and areas over a period of twenty years, destroying (or burning) just three cities, and coexisting alongside the Canaanites and other ethnic groups for a period of time before the beginnings of the monarchy, does not require blind faith.”

Perhaps the most interesting section of this book is Hoffmeier’s examination of the historical evidence for Semitic peoples existing in Egypt during the time of the Exodus. If proof can be provided that people of Semitic origins lived in Egypt during the time Israel was believed to have been enslaved, the assertions that the exodus tradition is full of holes itself begins to fall apart. Hoffmeier explores a number of key historical records that time and again support the biblical account. The archaeological evidence is abundant and convincing, leaving little room for further doubt to be cast on the validity of the biblical record or the reality that the people of Israel spent time in slavery in Egypt.

The Joseph narratives have come under scrutiny over the years and in recognition of the importance of addressing the issue of Joseph, Hoffmeier spends some time looking at the evidence for a Joseph figure in Egyptian history that matches the individual noted in the closing chapters of Genesis. Keys exist in the biblical record that allude to the historical facticity of issues such as Joseph being sold into slavery. Hoffmeier notes that the sales price of twenty skekels was indeed the average price for a slave during that period. Other elements of the Genesis account such as the mention of magicians interpreting dreams and the rise of Joseph to serve as vizier, do have a basis in accepted historical fact. While there does not seem to be a historical document or archaeological treasure that at this point makes an undeniable connection between Joseph and a figure of Egyptian history, nothing yet discovered brings sufficient questions to light to deny such a connection exists either and Hoffmeier does a great job of outlining and investigating these issues.

Of course no figure in the exodus tradition is as important as that of Moses. The story of Moses as a baby being taken in by the daughter of Pharaoh, raised in Pharaoh, and then running off essentially into hiding before being called by God to lead Israel from bondage is well known by most. But what if any historical proof exists for this Moses figure? Just as important, is there evidence for a mass exodus of people and/or slaves from Egypt during this period that would confirm the exodus tradition? Questions of historical individuals and matters of geography have long been debated by scholars and Hoffmeier, as he did with the other important topics regarding the exodus tradition, examines in great detail the scholarly discussions. The information is quite interesting and while some have continued to choose to argue against Moses being a real figure or anything noted in the biblical record as being possible historical fact, the evidence clearly points to the reality that once again the Bible can be shown to be accurate on all counts.

Hoffmeier concludes his book by noting the weight of the evidence presented makes it seem rather “premature to dismiss the biblical traditions of Israel’s birth as a nation in Egypt, an event still commemorated annually by Jews when Passover is observed.”

This is a book that I can highly recommend. It is replete with interesting information, Hoffmeier examines the arguments for and against the exodus tradition, and brings to bear his expertise in the area of Ancient Near Eastern studies on this important issue. The result is quite clear: God’s Word is again proven to be trustworthy.

I received this book for free from Oxford University Press and the opinions I have expressed are my own. I am disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission’s 16 CFR, Part 255 : “Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising.”

[Colin Ulrich · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was an incredibly well documented and researched book by the Egyptologist, James K. Hoffmeier. It contains a high number of footnotes for the academically inclined, but overall I would say that this book is geared mostly towards academics. Hoffmeier handles the most significant contemporary issues archaeologists and Old Testament scholars must concern themselves with when they handle the historicity of Genesis 39 - Exodus 14. Whereas many of today's laypeople concern themselves with proving the historicity of these events, Hoffmeier recognizes proof ought not be the goal, but rather tenability of one's beliefs.

Some of the topics considered: the realities Asian nomads like the Israelites faced with drought, and why Jacob/Joseph would have been likely to head to Egypt; a timeframe for the Exodus considering the Biblical passages (1 Kings 6:1), Egyptian dynasties, and archaeological evidence; a survey of possible locations for Pithom, Raamses, and Succoth; possible locations for the Re(e)d Sea; and the argument for a historical Moses.

Highlights: historical Moses; Pithom/Raamses/Succoth; crossing the Re(e)d Sea

[Garrett Cash · Rating 4 out of 5]

This excellent, well-researched work examines the evidence for the authenticity of Israel's sojourn in Egypt in mostly scholarly terms. This means that much of the book can be utterly lost on those with no background on the subject (Hoffmeier makes statements like "This is believed by some scholars to be a combination of J and E sources," which obviously means nothing if you don't know what that is). Being someone who isn't familiar with the archaeological background or Egyptology/ancient languages much of this book simply went over my head and was out of my element.
However, it is still an excellent resource for the facts on the plethora of indirect evidence for the authenticity of the tradition, and while some details are lost on the layman the overall conclusions are always clearly understood, and I feel like I have a better grasp on the topic.

[Pete Foley · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is an excellent book by an outstanding scholar, James Hoffmeier. The book details various "problems" with the OT accounts, including Joseph, Israel's sojourn in Egypt/slavery, the Exodus, etc. The supposed lack of evidence of the Israelite's / Semitic presence in Egypt during the 14th, 13th (etc.) centuries B.C. are thoroughly addressed, largely through epigraphic evidence (extra-Biblical) and through textual analysis of the OT itself (e.g., "Potiphar" is most definitely an Egyptian name at use during the time in question, the price of Joseph's sale into slavery matches the going price very accurately). JEDP theory, again, takes its lumps.

[David Tee · Rating 5 out of 5]

While I prefer his Israel in Sinai book this is another well-written book that explores the issue. It is hard to get information about Israel in Egypt because the ancient Egyptians were known to customize their history to make future generations patriotic and proud of their history and country.

Dr. Hoffmeier does a good job in digging up that hard to find information and I would read it again if I could find a copy in this country.

[Caleb Watson · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a very good scholarly case for the historicity of the Exodus tradition. Hoffmeier is trained in multiple disciplines, including biblical studies, archaeology, and perhaps most importantly for this volume, Egyptology. The strength of this book might be the modesty of its arguments. Hoffmeier makes a compelling case that the data available, at minimum, renders the Exodus tradition historically plausible. Protestations to the contrary likely betray ideological prejudice.

[Adam · Rating 5 out of 5]

A good recommendation

Great book and great insight into the biblical exodus. Although he supports a late date one id's hard-pressed to ignore the insurmountable archaeological and indirect evidence of Israel's presence in Egypt

[Corey · Rating 4 out of 5]

It's tough to describe this book. I read it cover to cover & I felt like I was earning my PHD in ancient religious studies. The content; arguments for and against topics was spot on. Was fun to read but does NOT flow like a typical history book. It's very academic.

[Eli · Rating 4 out of 5]

Hoffmeier does a superb job showing how the Bible's Exodus story is realistic in its details, matching what we know about ancient New Kingdom Egypt. Highly recommended.

[Michael · Rating 5 out of 5]

A must-read for historians.

[Jacques · Rating 3 out of 5]

Makes some convincing arguments that are consistent with other evidence

[David Mamdouh · Rating 4 out of 5]

although it is an old book, it still has big contribution in the study of exodus narrative from coming of Joseph to Egypt to the Passover.

[Brian Collins · Rating 4 out of 5]

There is no direct evidence for Israel's sojourn in Egypt or the Exodus. However, this should not be used to discount this historicity of Scripture accounts. Hoffmeier looks briefly at what can be legitimately expected from archaeology regarding Israel in Egypt given what is and can be known about Egypt at that time and in the place where the Israelites lived. He concludes that the lack of direct evidence for Israel is actually more to be expected than otherwise when this comparative study is undertaken. However, most of the book seeks to provide indirect evidence for Israel in Egypt and the Exodus. Hoffmeier is able to demonstrate that "Semetic-speaking people" would come to Egypt during droughts. Such people did live in Egypt during the time Bible places Israel there. There is also evidence of non-Egyptians, like Joseph, serving in government. Hoffmeier also documents Egyptian influence and an understanding of Egyptian practices in the Pentateuch. This argues for an author familiar with ancient Egypt (rather than one more familiar with later Mesopotamian cultures). Though there are some points at which I would disagree with Hoffmeier (e.g., aspects of his discussion of the plagues) or at which I am not yet entirely convinced (e.g., route of the exodus), the book is an excellent defense of the historicity of the latter part of Genesis and Exodus.

[James Chappell · Rating 4 out of 5]

A Persuasive but Difficult Read

Pitched somewhere between popular and scholarly level, Hoffmeier's attempt to provide indirect evidence for the Exodus and the events that ran up to it is convincing, supported by unforced evidence, but very heavy-going at times. I came out of it exhausted and in need of something lighter, but most certainly better informed about an area of study that is both important and unfairly maligned by minimalists.

[Robert · Rating 5 out of 5]

Another good book on the historicity of the Exodus tradition.

[Sky Haha]

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[Jean-michel Pigeon · Rating 4 out of 5]

Livre portant sur l'existence des sémites en Égypte et se portant à la défense de la tradition de l'exode.