Great Games, Local Rules: The New Great Power Contest in Central Asia

by Alexander Cooley

The struggle between Russia and Great Britain over Central Asia in the nineteenth century was the original "great game." But in the past quarter century, a new "great game" has emerged, pitting America against a newly aggressive Russia and a resource-hungry China, all struggling for influence over one of the volatile areas in the world: the long border region stretching from Iran through Pakistan to Kashmir. In Great Games, Local Rules, Alexander Cooley, one of America's most respected Central Asia experts, explores the dynamics of the new competition over the region since 9/11. All three great powers are pursuing important goals: basing rights for the US, access to natural resources for the Chinese, and increased political influence for the Russians. But Central Asian governments have proven themselves powerful forces in their own right, establishing local rules that serve to fend off foreign involvement, enrich themselves and reinforce their sovereign authority. Cooley's careful and surprising explanation of how small states interact with great powers in this vital region greatly advances our understanding of how world politics actually works in this contemporary era.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Russia, Politics, Kazakhstan, International Relations, Audiobook

257 pages, Kindle Edition

First published January 1, 2012

Reviews

[Ismoil Sadullozoda · Rating 5 out of 5]

“Great Games” in the title of the book refers to the nineteen-century contest between the British and Russian Empires over Central Asia. The growing Russian influence in the Caucasus and Central Asia was viewed as a threat to British Northern India.

In the “new Great Games”, the sides are new international actors-Superpowers-that contest for the dominant influence in the region. The US, China, and Russia are the main actors with the EU, India, Turkey, Iran, and other local powers contesting for influence over specific states of the region at different levels.

In this new game, however, the sides play not on their own ignoring the agency and positions of the local authorities but are actively involved in the rules and processes that are created and managed by the local states, the “Local Rules”. That is in the new game the Central Asian states are not passive pawns of Superpower politics, but active creators of the rules of engagement if the great powers want to be present in the region, which is the main argument of the book.

“The Rules” differ from state to state with some general characteristics based on the patrimonial structures, desire to protect the political status quo and current regimes, and to localize the international norms to fit the local political needs. The presence of multiple powers contesting for the presence in the region allows choosing between the superpowers that accept most of the “Local Rules”. The overly focused “base politics” (winning the local authorities` consent for placing the military base) resulted in the foreign actors’ “unintended” significant contribution to the deterioration of the socio-civic state in the region.

The book is well constructed and requires some little knowledge of the region to follow the discussion.

[Jesse Morrow · Rating 3 out of 5]

Cooley - who wrote the interesting but dull Logics of Hierarchy - claims to have discovered a paradigm for Central Asia. While researching the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Cooley noticed that the seemingly liberal internationalist structure of the organization actually assisted in the coalescence and strengthening of illiberal authoritarian regimes. (As I recall his article in Foreign Policy was "The League of Extraordinary Authoritarians" or something).

Cooley's model is just like the title says. He sees that the Big Three - Russia, China and the US - compete for influence in Central Asia in a version of the Russian-British Great Game of the 19th Century. Meanwhile, each Central Asian Republic comes with its own specific system of influence peddling and graft.

Cooley then goes on to describe the local graft and each of the Big Three's goals and actions within the paradigm of Great Games with Local Rules. In it he makes clear that each of the Big Three while pursuing their specific agenda have helped propped up the authoritarian regimes in Central Asia. And from this propping up the regimes have increased their levels of graft and control of the political and economic systems of each country.

He also comments on the seeming integrationist structures of Central Asia. However each turn out to be more of a spoke and wheel system that tries to connect the individual countries directly to China or Russia. And while trade with China and Russia have increased, trade among Central Asian countries has not.

While he has shown quite well how the international powers are using Central Asia for their own purposes and how well Central Asian leaders play one great power off another, I don't know if he's really found anything ground breaking here. However, he does unravel and destroy the simplistic narrative of a New Great Game. In reality, these are still modern nations that extract maximum benefits from each of the great powers. Additionally - like Denoon argued in "US China and the Future of Central Asia" - Cooley finds that very few of the Big Three diplomatic goals overlap. This way there are few "losers" in Central Asia as it is not the zero sum game of original Great Game.

[Caroline · Rating 3 out of 5]

Sigh. So much corruption, and no end in sight.

This is a very organized, well documented description of the interactions between the three powers in the title and the central Asian republics, focused on the first decade of the 21st century. Cooley's position is that the old Great Game construct for analyzing Western moves and central Asian reactions no longer applies. Instead, after decades of Soviet rule, government by patrimony is irrevocably in place, and the elite have figured out how to manipulate the three big competitors by using the international banking system and the competitors' own goals to make demands and skim off the profits. Moreover, Russian, American and Chinese bargaining for physical bases and security forces' cooperation to fight terrorism or politically challenging elements to the south, east and in Chechnya have given Central Asian rulers the (literal) ammunition and cover to silence their internal opposition.

Cooley also argues that continuing the Great Game language doesn't make sense because the goals of the three big powers are now mainly compatible. Russia is after prestige and protection for its long-standing business and infrastructure connections with the region, China is after resources and a base to fight dissidents in western China, and the US wants bases to carry on its war in Afghanistan. All three have participated in the corruption explosion; Cooley presents many leaked documents. This has cost the US any political ability or moral position from which to criticize the fixed elections or general repression.

My criticism concerns a certain amount of repetition; it seems as if the case of the double crossing at Manas Air Base comes up about 50 times.

[Mark · Rating 2 out of 5]

If you're doing a post-grad in Central Asian diplomacy, then this would be an ideal book to read. If, however, your reading it for fun, not so much.

I knew going in that it wouldn't be exactly what I was looking for (a book detailing the Central Asian republics after the collapse of the Soviet Union), that book apparently doesn't exist. And whilst there is a lot facts and modern history within the covers, it is nevertheless a very dense book, and unfortunately not all that enjoyable as a result.

[Wes F · Rating 4 out of 5]

A very good & in-depth analysis of how the three great powers--the US, Russia, & China--have been increasingly involved in Central Asia in the post-Soviet, and especially post-9/11 world. Cooley does an excellent job of showing how the "local rules" & "rulers" (the power elites) of the Central Asian states have used their holds on the power structures of their states to enhance themselves & their families, and to force the hand of outsiders to often do their bidding. Or to meet their bids; e.g. the lease at the Manas Airport in Bishkek for the US armed forces transition point for supporting the war on terror in Afghanistan. It's clear that corruption continues to play a huge role in all that happens (or doesn't) in the Central Asian states. And thus Kipling's "great game" across Central Asia continues...

[Spencer Willardson · Rating 3 out of 5]

The book is generally good. I was a bit disappointed that the premise of the three rules was really only applied selectively, and mostly as it has to do with the US. It's a pretty good book to get a general understanding of many of the political issues in the Central Asian states, but its more about the actions of great powers than the agency of the states in the region.

The takeaway point can be summarized quite shortly: patrimonial and corrupt regimes in the region have incentives to keep things the way they are and to play other powers off of each other as much as possible to increase the money that can be appropriated by the regime and its loyalists.

[Sonny Schovanec · Rating 4 out of 5]

Great Insight

Great insight on South Central Asian countries and the role the US, Russia and China play there. Interesting for the causal reader who is interested in International relations and the Historian looking for facts on Central Asia.

[Iván · Rating 3 out of 5]

Un libro sobre Asia Central, centrado en algunas realidades de los tanes en temas económicos, políticos, sociales y de corrupción, pero sobre todo en la geopolítica y en sus relaciones con la grandes potencias de Estados Unidos, Rusia y China.

[Joel Blankenship · Rating 5 out of 5]

Forthcoming

[Jeremy · Rating 3 out of 5]

If you read anything about Central Asian politics in the context of the wider world, eventually it will bring up "The Great Game." The Great Game is a phrase coined by Rudyard Kipling to refer to when Russia and Great Britain jockeyed for position in Central Asia in the 19th and early 20th Century. The British were alarmed by Russian expansion into Central Asia that seemed to be heading towards its domain in India. The "game" was mostly played with spies and attempts to bribe or otherwise influence local leaders against the interest of the other rival colonial power.

Inevitably, any discussion of the Central Asian republics that became independent after the fall of the Soviet Union is framed by the idea of a "new great game," where, in most tellings, the U.S. or the West in general, has replaced the UK to face off against Russian influence in those former soviet lands.

"Great Games, Local Rules" challenges that framing, first by noting that there are really three major outside powers vying for influence in Central Asia, the U.S., Russia, and China, not just two. But also noting that the Central Asians themselves are more than mere pawns in an outsider's game. They are also actors. Rather than being the subject of manipulation by more sophisticated global powers, Central Asians have sometimes effectively played the outsiders against each other and manipulated them to serve their own local interests. By emphasizing "local rules", Cooley turns the "great game" framing on its head and thus gives a much more complex account of the recent political history of the region.

Which makes me wonder if the historic 19th century great game itself is a bit of a fraud. The people who wrote the history of the great game were Westerners who were products of an era when European colonialism was at its height. It would be quite natural for them to see all events in terms of choices made by European actors, while downplaying or ignoring the role that the local rules and local rulers might play. That historical question is not mentioned in this book. But it is what I kept returning to as I read this book.

The book is fairly short, but densely written. So it is probably not for everyone. I personally wish that Cooley had looked at some of the other outside countries that have sought to extend their influence into post-soviet Central Asia beyond the U.S., Russia and China. I particularly wish he looked at Turkey. During both my stay in Kazakhstan in 2010 and my visit to Uzbekistan in 2003, I was struck by how much Turkey has invested in the region as it seeks to reconnect with its ethnic Turkic cousins after being separated by the iron curtain. I guess I just need to find another book for that.

[Scriptor Ignotus · Rating 4 out of 5]

An illuminating case study of an often-overlooked region. The first decade of the twenty-first century saw China, Russia, and the United States all experiencing renewed interest in Central Asia, for different reasons and in pursuit of different objectives. The United States relies heavily on transportation rights and logistical support from Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan for its ongoing efforts in Afghanistan. Russia has largely recovered from the Soviet collapse and sought to reassert itself in the region. The creation of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) has been a theater in which Russia has recast itself as a leader among nations, as the organization is based on the NATO model. China's interests have been largely economic, as it has invested heavily in the development of the Central Asian nations without demanding political reforms in return, as the United States often does. The SCO, another twenty-first century organization, has been a tool for China's regional influence. Not to be overlooked are the exploits of the local leaders themselves, as they have often skillfully played the great powers off of one another to gain special concessions. Old school political maneuvering in international relations is not a thing of the past, as this compelling case study demonstrates, and oftentimes the remotest parts of the world can be theaters political and ideological contests with high stakes.

[Alastair · Rating 4 out of 5]

Extremely well written and researched, this book offers a readable yet in-depth examination of a specific question regarding the central asian republics, viz. to what extent have China, Russia and the USA influenced the region (the titular "Great games") and to what extent have their policy aims been moulded and their overall aims been frustrated by the "local rules" primarily enforced by the ruling elites.

While I thoroughly enjoyed this book, it is definitely not for someone who has no knowledge of these countries. If you are not fairly familiar with place names (like Andijan, Osh or Termez) or overall themes of the region (like the civil war in Tajikistan, the isolationism of Turkmenistan or the Islamic movements of the Fergana valley) then you will find this book much less easy to navigate. I read Dilip Hiro's "Inside Central Asia" before reading this book; despite its flaws, I would have got much less out of Alexander Cooley's work if I hadn't just read Hiro's concise post-independence histories of all the countries of Central Asia.

In short, for those with a basic knowledge of Central Asia, Great Games, Local Rules is a true delight, a rare balance of stories and narrative detail that bring to life the more staid and academic focus of this work.

[Hossein Aghaie · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book depits perhaps the most accurate, balanced and realistic picture of the contemporary geopolitical and geostrategic interplay between China, Russia and the US in Central Asia. Cooley masterfully teases out complexities entrenched within the context of power relations in the region, and performs a remarkable job of juxtaposing the pieces of this complex mosaic of geopolitical rivalry by bringing high focus and establishing cogent arguments and connections from one chapter to the another. The greatest advantage of the book lies in its being up to date and reflective of what is really happening in the 'New Great Game'. Definitely recommended for students of international politics, especially those who specialize in Central Asian politics.

[Chris Tatara · Rating 3 out of 5]

Professor Cooley's book, while dense, is a good primer on relations between the three global powers and Central Asia in the the first decade of the 21st century. His framework showing how each powers' policies interact with the regions local rules is compelling and shows why policy towards this region is often marred with scandal and controversy (at least in the West).

However, anyone who has an existing background in Central Asia may find this book redundant. Outside of a few specific case studies highlighted in the book, most of the material was already known to me. For those with no knowledge of Central Asia this is a must read; for those with extensive knowledge already it is a solid argument surrounded by relatively common knowledge facts.

[Kw Estes · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a useful primer on relatively recent "great power" foreign policy in post-Soviet Central Asia. Cooley makes clear that the Central Asian political elite is not only being acted upon and utilized by the US, China, and Russia, but have also displayed agency in their dealings with these powers, often playing one off the other for their own economic and political benefit. This strategy of the Central Asian political elite has, however, not brought broad benefits to the people of these countries and, conversely, has likely only made widespread economic development and political liberalization a more distant goal.

[Matt · Rating 4 out of 5]

Cooley looks at how the three major global powers (the US, Russia, and China) have interacted with Central Asia in the 21st century, and how the Central Asian states have utilised competing interests to bolster their own standing. For the most part it doesn't contain much new for anyone who has followed the region, though it is nice to have all this information in one easily accessible source, and the addition of China is an added bonus. It doesn't provide a lot of new revelations, but does offer some interesting insight.

[Christopher · Rating 4 out of 5]

A briskly written and succinctly argued analysis of how the US, Russia, and China have sought to create or sustain influence in Central Asia. This book is especially timely, given the pending US drawdown in Afghanistan, and the resulting need to come to terms with the changed dynamics in the region.

[!Tæmbuŝu]

KOBOBOOKS

Reviewed by NYRB

[Jeffrey Cavanaugh · Rating 3 out of 5]

An interesting examination of the current geopolitics of Central Asia, where the U.S., Russia, and China all compete for influence. The takeaway is that the more competition for influence between the great powers, the more the local rulers benefit.

[David Lawrence · Rating 4 out of 5]

Good information on what are some of the driving forces in Central Asia. Not definitive, since it was such a short read, but lots if goid information for the Central Asia novice.

[Cold · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fascinating book, fantastic writing, recommended to anyone who knows little about Central Asia.