Lucifer: A Theological Tragedy

by George Santayana

"Lucifer: A Theological Tragedy," by George Santayana, '86, is as remarkable for the high level of its thought and its poetical expression as for the magnitude of its plan. In the Book of Job we have the presentation of one aspect of man's struggle with the mystery of evil; in Paradise Lost we have another; in Faust still another. Mr. Santayana's method is to embody the various attitudes of man towards life in the persons of Lucifer, Hermes, Mephistopheles, and Christ, and to show how they all, except the last, fail and die through their imperfections. An immense amount of thought has gone to the production of this poem. Mr. Santayana has examined for himself the various systems which he here personifies; he has checked off theory with experience, and he possesses the faculty of sympathizing with and understanding the opinions of the various characters he depicts. In Hermes, for example, he gives a beautiful interpretation of Greek mythology. And yet, if we appraise his work as a drama, we find that it falls short in two essentials: first, the dramatis personae hardly ever put off their abstract nature; secondly, the crises in the "tragedy" are too subtle, too purely metaphysical or theological, to make that impression which is the end of tragedy. The long disputation between Lucifer and Christ, to cite only one instance, is hardly less abstract than would be a dialogue between personifications of Heredity and Natural Selection, with Environment standing by to represent the Chorus. The defect seems to be incorrigible, because the dramatic form does not lend itself to the unfolding of such a theme as Mr. Santayana has chosen. An epic narrative, like that of Paradise Lost, would have served far better. Successful tragedy never leaves us in doubt whether the characters are living or abstract; it never finds us asking, "Is this the climax?" Othello is no theory, Macbeth no abstraction. We suspect that Mr. Santayana takes more interest in principles than in persons. In a noteworthy essay on Greek Religion, printed in the New World for September, he points out that the "poetic audacities" with which the Greek humanized the divine idea underlying his mythology, proved that the god was not an invention but a fact; that "his character, like all character, was merely a principle which reflection discovered in his observed conduct." In Lucifer, Mr. Santayana deals so largely with principles that conduct and concrete personality count for almost nothing. It is the substance of his poem, therefore, - the substance and fine poetic expression, rather than the form, - which give it distinction of a high order. It contains more of the stuff of genuine poetry than would make the reputation of a whole batch of minor poets. Many pages might be filled with extracts illustrating these qualities; but readers of poetry whose minds are adult, and who have become a little surfeited with the recent effusions of marine and bellicose bards, will wish to taste Mr. Santayana's volume for themselves. They will find in it something different from tumty-tum balladry.
-"The Harvard Graduates' Magazine," Volume 8 [1900]

Genres: Poetry

214 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1899

About the author

Philosopher, poet, literary and cultural critic, George Santayana is a principal figure in Classical American Philosophy. His naturalism and emphasis on creative imagination were harbingers of important intellectual turns on both sides of the Atlantic. He was a naturalist before naturalism grew popular; he appreciated multiple perfections before multiculturalism became an issue; he thought of philosophy as literature before it became a theme in American and European scholarly circles; and he managed to naturalize Platonism, update Aristotle, fight off idealisms, and provide a striking and sensitive account of the spiritual life without being a religious believer. His Hispanic heritage, shaded by his sense of being an outsider in America, captures many qualities of American life missed by insiders, and presents views equal to Tocqueville in quality and importance. Beyond philosophy, only Emerson may match his literary production. As a public figure, he appeared on the front cover of Time (3 February 1936), and his autobiography (Persons and Places, 1944) and only novel (The Last Puritan, 1936) were the best-selling books in the United States as Book-of-the-Month Club selections. The novel was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and Edmund Wilson ranked Persons and Places among the few first-rate autobiographies, comparing it favorably to Yeats's memoirs, The Education of Henry Adams, and Proust's Remembrance of Things Past. Remarkably, Santayana achieved this stature in American thought without being an American citizen. He proudly retained his Spanish citizenship throughout his life. Yet, as he readily admitted, it is as an American that his philosophical and literary corpuses are to be judged. Using contemporary classifications, Santayana is the first and foremost Hispanic-American philosopher.

Reviews

[Grayson King · Rating 5 out of 5]

Make not my love a reason for thy hate. NO ONE SPEAK TO ME i dont even know what to say so im just gonna put some quotes:

Nay, God himself, who saith he died for all,
Remembers not his myriad unforgiven
Children in hell


Let my pangs suffice
Thine anger. In the place where I shall dwell,
Sole victim of an endless sacrifice,
It then will comfort me to be alone,
For I shall hear no other spirit moan
In the wide world where all was misery.


Oh, then ’tis paradise
To watch the sweetness creep into his face!
Alas! alas!


and mild spoiler but im giving no context :

I cried in joy, ‘I see my star’; and he,
Spreading his arms to give me liberty,
Answered, afar already, ‘I see mine.’
I turned. Nor he, nor his pale star was there,
Only a solemn sound of rushing wind

OHHHHHHHH MYYYY LOOORDDDDDDDDDDD

it really was so so beautiful, i mean everyone was a little OOC but its fun yk. PLEASE i live for this i long for this let me eat these words i need a paper copy ASAP

[Edgardo · Rating 5 out of 5]

Good.