比較的幽靈：民族主義、東南亞與全球

by Benedict Anderson, 陳信宏 (Translator)

橫跨超過二十年的思想精粹
見證人文經典《想像的共同體》誕生
班納迪克．安德森從被殖民經驗再探民族主義的起源
從世界瞭解東南亞，也從東南亞瞭解世界

★ 東南亞殖民經驗、民族主義起源與發展的時空切片
★ 呈現被殖民經驗、集體主體性發展過程中，繁複幽微的樣貌
★ 以比較的視角、文學的解構，對殖民主義提出深刻的批判
★ 透過比較的幽靈，重新探究東南亞區域研究與民族主義理論

一部波瀾壯闊的比較史，延伸民族作為想像的共同體。
而這次，圍繞著「比較的幽靈」視角，
安德森帶領我們反思被殖民經驗中的不安與反抗！

一九八三年，班納迪克．安德森出版了《想像的共同體：民族主義的起源與散布》，被譽為掀起人文學界的哥白尼革命。這本書徹底改寫學術典範，重新定義了我們對民族主義與國族認同的認識，其影響廣及人文與社會學科的各個領域。

事實上，安德森《想像的共同體》其理論基礎，與他的東南亞研究分不開。安德森於一九五八年進入康乃爾大學東南亞學程就讀，最初以印尼為研究主題。一九七三年安德森被獨裁者蘇哈托逐出印尼後，先轉往暹羅，中間也曾前往菲律賓。除了馬不停蹄的研究，他也親身經歷七○年代東南亞各國動盪的局勢。安德森從東南亞研究出發的視野，使他能以非西方觀點思考，終於提煉出《想像的共同體》中普世的民族主義理論。

本書完成於《想像的共同體》出版後十五年，可謂為《想像的共同體》的延伸補充，也是安德森中間二十多年來不斷驗證與反思理論的成果。如果《想像的共同體》建構的是一套完整的理論框架，那《比較的幽靈》則可說是以列舉的方式，呈現一個又一個東南亞被殖民經驗中，那些與舊文化斷裂，同時新的民族意識亦浮現的時刻。安德森在書中不斷告訴我們，無論我們在世界的哪個角落，作為曾被殖民的一分子，我們一方面看待帝國的壓迫、殖民者的剝削，另一方面又從殖民主義的觀點中重新認識自己所屬的民族、語言、文化，甚至是政治認同，而這種比較的、雙重的視角，正是民族作為想像共同體的起源。

何謂「比較的幽靈」？
「比較的幽靈」其典故出自於菲律賓民族英雄荷西．黎剎的小說《不許犯我》（Noli Me Tan-gere）。在這本小說中，主角在他自己被殖民的家園以及殖民母國的視角中產生了一系列心境上的變化，尤其指一種暈眩的感受，而這種感受則源自於一種雙重視角：一重是以殖民者的角度，而另一重則是以被殖民者的角度，故一旦戴上這個具有雙重視角的鏡片，便造成一陣心境上的暈眩感。安德森將這種暈眩的感受用來借喻為殖民者或被殖民者兩造無法對認同與理解自身處境上，再以單純的方式看待。

【第一部　民族主義的漫長發展過程】
本書的第一部分，形同延伸並擴充《想像的共同體》。在前書的基礎上，安德森進一步探討了更多影響民族性、民族主義認同形成的因素：包含物質的、制度的，與抽象概念層次上的。安德森分析民族這種集體主體性的形成，特別是個人如何成為民族「連續體」中的一員，例如透過報紙、人口普查、選舉主義、政治參與等等，並進而影響了這個「連續體」的樣貌。

值得注意的是，在官方民族主義的簇擁下，安德森也具體探討歐美國家所建造的紀念碑、先賢祠、陣亡戰士公墓等一系列非常具民族主義風格的標誌，以及其背後設立的動機。除此之外，安德森也敏銳地觀察到二十世紀以降，逐漸走入全球資本化的時代中，長途民族主義迅速崛起的現象，特別是在流放中形成的民族認同，包含從二十世紀初的離散，到當代工業資本主義時代的跨國移民。

【第二部　東南亞：國家研究】
安德森在本書的第二部分，聚焦在數個東南亞的人物、時刻與場景。可謂是東南亞被殖民歷史中，民族主義發展的幾個時空切片。

尤其特別的是，安德森引用大量東南亞文學作品，闡述他對於東南亞各國民族意識啟蒙的觀點。其中包含二十世紀初期爪哇「至善社」（猶如一九二○年代臺灣的文化協會）創辦人蘇托諾的人生回憶錄，安德森從中解讀被殖民的深層文化經驗。其次是兩本十九世紀印尼俗文學著作《真提尼》與《蓋洛可傳》，安德森以此兩個文本呈現當時的爪哇傳統，詮釋這些文本的作者如何戲弄與挑戰舊權貴階層。而安德森對東南亞文學的深厚底蘊，更可以從他分析菲律賓民族英雄黎剎的小說《不許犯我》中窺見一斑。他不僅從小說的設定中把握菲律賓人對於自我民族的想像建構，也從比較小說的譯本中，看見譯者對民族想像的時代錯置。

接著來到二十世紀後半，安德森除了談到東帝汶的獨立問題，也詳細論述泰國如何在六○年代依賴越戰，使得經濟獲得快速發展而形成「大榮景」，進而讓七○年代新興的中產階級，一方面在社會上既扮演中堅分子，另一方面又主導了現代暹羅的政治謀殺。此外，安德森也發揮他對歷史材料的掌握和對當代菲律賓政治的一手觀察，提供相當豐富的細節，試圖回答何以美國以政治魁儡操作的方式，始終無法取代菲律賓的酋長民主。

【第三部　東南亞：比較研究】
在本書的第三部分中，安德森從東南亞諸國的政治發展做一個整體性的比較研究。這部分涵蓋的議題包含東南亞的選舉，例如泰國、菲律賓、印尼各是如何開始國家層級的選舉並組成立法機構；東南亞獨特的「亞洲奇蹟」其發生的條件，例如這些國家都歷經教育改革的失敗與人才流亡於海外等情況，更雪上加霜的是還包括各國領導政府對於資源的濫用、短視近利，甚至是「不愛國」，以至於在冷戰期間讓國力迅速走下坡。同時，安德森也討論東南亞各國間或多或少曾扮演過重要角色的共產主義，以及在共產勢力被瓦解之後殘存的那些激進思想和勢力。值得一提的是，安德森也思考「多數」與「少數」族群在東南亞的政治發展中所代表的意義。

【第四部　還剩下什麼？】
至於本書的最後一部分，安德森再次將視野從東南亞放大到全球。藉由剖析秘魯作家巴爾加斯．尤薩的小說《敘事人》（El Hablador），從文學的手法探討東南亞以外的被殖民經驗以及民族與文化的精神。雖然人們經常認為「自己所屬的國家民族必定是善的」，但是這種良善的源頭究竟是如何而來？安德森用極具辛辣諷刺的筆法，討論當代民族國家如何將良善的想像建構於生者、尚未出生者，甚至是死者這三類群體之中。最後，安德森也對民族主義情感中，有關於民族良善的迷思提出深刻的反省。

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Politics, Theory, Sociology, Philosophy, Anthropology

584 pages, Paperback

First published September 1, 1998

About the author

Benedict Richard O'Gorman Anderson was Aaron L. Binenkorb Professor Emeritus of International Studies, Government & Asian Studies at Cornell University, and is best known for his celebrated book Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, first published in 1983. Anderson was born in Kunming, China, to James O'Gorman Anderson and Veronica Beatrice Bigham, and in 1941 the family moved to California. In 1957, Anderson received a Bachelor of Arts in Classics from Cambridge University, and he later earned a Ph.D. from Cornell's Department of Government, where he studied modern Indonesia under the guidance of George Kahin. He is the brother of historian Perry Anderson.

Reviews

[Smiley · Rating 5 out of 5]

Having scribbled on the last page 'Interestingly tough', I found this 4-part, 17-chapter book read as my No. 4 by Prof. Anderson complex and informative in terms of his formidable knowledge, analyses and viewpoints on comparative nationalism in Indonesia, Siam (Thailand currently) and the Philippines dating back since the nineteenth century. When I looked at the front cover photo, it vaguely reminded me of a historic episode I saw many years ago but I could not recall what and who it depicted to posterity till I found it out a few weeks ago on Jose Rizal in its wikipedia archive. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Rizal) It is indeed a hopelessly tragic photo with eerie atmosphere since it has long been taken as a photographic record of his execution on December 30, 1896 due to his nationalist movements against Spanish colonial rule. Eventually, it was my delight to read Chapter 10 The First Filipino, knowing him more with awe and respect; thus, I think it is all right to recommend interested readers to read this chapter right away after seeing one of the nationalism-related photos on the front cover.

Reading his biography (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedic...) is an essential background to one's better understanding, I think, before reading his books. For instance, from the biography, it informs us why he has remarkably written on the three countries with different colonial rules and the most religious faiths in each country, that is, Indonesia under the Dutch (87.2% Islam), Siam uncolonized (94.50% Buddhism) and the Philippines under Spain (91.3 Christianity). [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp...] So such big data as revealed in the three websites nearly unthinkably reflect The Spectre of Comparisons, the title of "this series of profound and eloquent essays." (back cover)

To continue . . .

[Patrick · Rating 4 out of 5]

A really great book. Anderson has the fine distinction of being an amazing scholar as well as a very talented writer. He manages to successfully pull off a very self-aware comparative history of Southeast Asia through the three nations he became an expert in: the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand. The book is not a monograph per say, but instead a collection of essays varying in scope and writing style. Some are constructed historical narratives, others are close literary and textual analyses of nationalist print. He manages very successfully to show that nationalism was conceived in an international setting in the early twentieth century, and that the individual nationalisms of these three nations are entirely related to nationalist thought and movements around the world. A very good sequel to read after his more famous Imagined Communities. It better elaborates his personal feelings towards nationalism. Nationalism can be very dangerous and is often scoffed at by the intellectual left of the post-modern West, but it was also very inspiring, optimistic, and internationalist for anti-colonial revolutionaries, writers, and state builders of Cold War era Southeast Asia. I think I will be incorporating this book as assigned reading for teaching future courses in Southeast Asian and/or global history.

[Nicholas · Rating 3 out of 5]

The great Benedict Anderson himself is the Spectre of Comparison. Writing in the way as he always does, Ben shuns the rigidity of comparative politics by effortless transporting the reader from one locale to another, from one language to another, and from one text to another in trying not only to put Southeast Asia in the world, but also the world in Southeast Asia. Some of the writings of this 1998 book may look dated but the key question of nation and nationalism still beguile us till this day. Admittedly, Ben's encyclopedic knowledge and eclectic interest make him hard to follow, as he moves from literary criticism to Marxist analyses, and from colonial history to a world-historical view of Southeast Asia up until the 97 financial crisis from chapter to chapter. Flippant and sometimes even vertiginous, it follows from the spirit of Imagined Communities. That it is the ability to imagine that constitutes nations. As scholarship turned dry and more disciplined than ever, Ben's spectre will enrich the imagination of Southeast Asianists for many years to come.

[Manuel · Rating 4 out of 5]

The book has a good compact chapter on Philippine history called "Cacique Democracy." It covers the arrival of the Spaniards to the Aquino years. It argues that mestizos, especially of the Chinese/Tagalog variety, were the instigators of the Katipunan movement that launched the Philippine revolution of 1896. Furthermore, the mestizos effectively took control of the commonwealth under U.S. auspices until 1946.

[竹溪 刘 · Rating 4 out of 5]

这一本比较专注于安德森擅长的东南亚，在民族主义的基础框架上根据东南亚各国（主要是印度尼西亚、菲律宾、泰国、马来西亚）的情况有一些有趣的展开，甚至其中一些判断放在21世纪再看也是颇有启发的——是的我就是在说2020年代以来，东南亚那些以流行文化符号（《饥饿游戏》里的嘲笑鸟手势或者《海贼王》中的海贼旗帜）为纽带、跨越了国界的“平民主义”运动与何塞·黎刹那一辈民族发明家们的小说扮演的角色对照起来看，是何其有趣呢。

[CL Chu · Rating 4 out of 5]

Witty essays whose source materials are sometimes more interesting than the analysis (which is remarkable given that the analysis is great enough). The question is: from now where should Southeast Asia go?

[Wang Yu · Rating 3 out of 5]

了解东南亚民族建构，民主进程，历史文化的工具

[Jeany Lin · Rating 5 out of 5]

論文集。不是很好讀，和《比較的幽靈》差不多同時間，可以同時讀。

[Vip Vinyaratn · Rating 4 out of 5]

Many great articles on South-East Asian

[Karlo Mikhail · Rating 4 out of 5]

Don't agree with everything written here but it still sure is fascinating and insightful.