The Fate of the Generals: MacArthur, Wainwright, and the Epic Battle for the Philippines

by Jonathan Horn

In the tradition of Hampton Sides’s bestseller Ghost Soldiers comes a World War II story of bravery and sacrifice—the vow Douglas MacArthur made to return to the Philippines and the oath his fellow general Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright made to stay with his men there whatever the cost.

For the doomed stand American forces made in the Philippines at the start of World War II, two generals received their country’s highest military award, the Medal of Honor. One was the charismatic and controversial Douglas MacArthur, whose orders forced him to leave his soldiers on the islands to starvation and surrender but whose vow to return echoed around the globe. The other was the gritty Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright, who became a hero to the troops whose fate he insisted on sharing even when it meant becoming the highest-ranking American prisoner of the Japanese.

In The Fate of the Generals, bestselling author Jonathan Horn brings together the story of two men who won the same medal but found honor on very different paths. MacArthur’s journey would require a daring escape with his wife and young child to Australia and then years of fighting over the thousands of miles needed to make it back to the Philippines, where he would fulfill his famous vow only to see the city he called home burn. Wainwright’s journey would take him from the Philippines to Taiwan and Manchuria as his captors tortured him in prisons and left him to wonder whether his countrymen would ever understand the choice he had made to surrender for the sake of his men.

A story of war made personal based on meticulous research into letters and diaries including boxes of previously unexplored papers, The Fate of the Generals is a vivid account that raises timely questions about how we define honor and how we choose our heroes, and is destined to become a classic of World War II history.

Genres: History, Military History, Nonfiction, World War II, Biography, American History, Military Fiction

Kindle Edition

Published April 15, 2025

About the author

Jonathan Horn is an author and former White House presidential speechwriter whose books include Washington’s End and the Robert E. Lee biography The Man Who Would Not Be Washington, which was a Washington Post bestseller. He has written for outlets including The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, The New York Times Disunion series, New York Post, The Daily Beast, National Review, and Politico Magazine, and has appeared on CBS Sunday Morning, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, and PBS NewsHour. A graduate of Yale, he lives in Bethesda, Maryland, with his wife, two children, and dog. On April 15, 2025, Scribner published his newest book, The Fate of the Generals: MacArthur, Wainwright, and the Epic Battle for the Philippines.

Reviews

[Jill H. · Rating 5 out of 5]

Corregidor, The Rock, Topside, the Bataan Death March.........it is all here and more. This wonderful book is part biography of the Generals MacArthur and Wainwright; and part the history of the surrender of the Philippines to the Japanese. The author merges them seamlessly in a fascinating look at the horrors of an impossible situation that faced both Generals.

Those who read this book probably know about this period of WWII and i won't go into much detail. MacArthur was ordered by President Roosevelt to escape to Australia and leave General Wainwright behind to defend the undefendable. The troops were trapped on The Rock with no supplies, little ammunition and no chance. Wainwright carried on until the end and then surrendered. Thus began the Bataan Death March.

Meanwhile, MacArthur, who was always seeking publicity, made his "I shall return" speech which made him into a hero while basically ignoring Wainwright and his bravery. Although Wainwright believed that if he lived he would face court martial; instead he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor when he was released from Japanese prison camps at the end of the war.

I will leave it there since I couldn't do justice to this book. I highly recommend it. (Maps and photographs are included.)

[KOMET · Rating 5 out of 5]

The Fate of the Generals: MacArthur, Wainwright, and the Epic Battle for the Philippines tells the story of Generals Douglas MacArthur and Jonathan Wainwright - both West Pointers with extensive ties to the Philippines - and their roles in the defense of the Philippines between December 1941 and May 1942, which culminated in the greatest battlefield defeat for the U.S. Army in World War II.

When MacArthur was ordered out of the Philippines in March 1942 by President Roosevelt and managed to escape with his family and aides to Australia, Wainwright succeeded him as commander of all American and Philippine forces. Wainwright did his utmost with the resources he had to blunt the Japanese invasion, first at Bataan and following the loss of Bataan in April 1942, to the nearby island citadel of Corregidor (which managed to hold out for another month). He comes across in the book as a conscientious, selfless officer, deeply concerned for the welfare of the men under his command. This contrasts with MacArthur, who was derelict in his duties with respect to the defense of the Philippines, failing - hours after receiving news of the Pearl Harbor attack - to scatter his air units in anticipation of Japanese air attacks from Formosa. Consequently, MacArthur's fighter and bomber units were largely decimated by Japanese air attacks, which from the earliest days of Japan's invasion of the Philippines, gave it air supremacy and helped ensure a Japanese victory in May 1942.

So, while Wainwright surrendered his forces to Japan and suffered with his soldiers as a POW for 3 years, MacArthur was able to redeem himself in battle and return to the Philippines as the conquering hero in October 1944 - thus making good on his promise to liberate the islands from Japanese control.

Wainwright survived the war, but had paid a high price in terms of his personal life upon returning home to his wife, who had been fully supportive of him during his imprisonment. (She helped ensure that he would be able to retire from the Army as a Major General in 1947.) The saving grace for Wainwright came with the awarding by President Truman of the nation's highest award for bravery (the Medal of Honor) on September 10, 1945. Unbeknownst to Wainwright, General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, had sent MacArthur in Australia 3 years earlier, a recommendation for Wainwright to be awarded the Medal. But MacArthur felt that Wainwright was undeserving of such an award, making that plain to his superiors in Washington. MacArthur contended that Wainwright had failed as a commander. And yet, MacArthur himself - who very likely bears the most responsibility for the U.S. defeat in the Philippines - had been awarded the Medal of Honor in 1942. This awarding of the Medal of Honor to MacArthur (whose father Arthur MacArthur had been awarded the Medal of Honor for bravery in the Battle of Lookout Mountain in Tennessee during the Civil War; Arthur would go on to have a long and distinguished military career which culminated in him being named military governor of the Philippines after the U.S. acquired control of the islands from Spain following the Spanish-American War) was likely made as a face-saving gesture to MacArthur, who at that stage of the war (i.e., the spring of 1942), was already lauded in the U.S. as one of the U.S. Army's finest battlefield generals. (MacArthur was a good PR man who excelled at self-promotion.)

Jonathan Horn has done a wonderful job in providing a clear understanding of what really happened with respect to the U.S. defeat in the Philippines during the early months of the Pacific War. Granted, Douglas MacArthur deserves his plaudits as a skilled battlefield commander. But he also is not blameless for what was one of America's greatest military defeats in its history.

[Karen · Rating 5 out of 5]

My husband and I finished this book in a day. It's not my usual genre, but it's close to my heart after hearing our grandparents' experiences during WWII in the Philippines. I would hear personal accounts of stories about WWII in the Philippines from my grandfather, and stories passed on from my husband's grandfather who served as an officer in the Philippines' military. I've always been so fascinated with this era, so seeing that the author published this book from the discovery of Wainwright's personal diaries and letters made me eager to read it even more. Growing up, I've always heard heroic stories about Gen. MacArthur's oath to return to the Philippines, while on the other hand, I wasn't familiar that there was also another hero--Gen. Wainwright, who made a choice and sacrificed to stay with his men no matter the risks. Because of him, many people survived. Because of him, many people survived. It was a treat to also see photos, maps, and the book provided original reference lists from Philippine and American military history. This was written like a novel and well-researched. There was a lot of new fun facts I learned, and I was mind blown by how little I knew about their background. This book inspired me to start picking up more nonfictions and adding them to my TBR from now on.

Thank you so much Simon & Schuster/Scribner books for gifting me a copy of this book. Who knew my 2 am email would result to this. 🥹😭 I'm sharing this book with my children.

[Bill Bookworm · Rating 4 out of 5]

4.5 stars. Would recommend to anyone who liked Ghost Soldiers and wants to read more about WWII in the Philippines. The book isn’t really vilifying McArthur too much, just trying to argue Wainwright deserves more recognition. Multiple things can be true at once -- it made sense to pull McArthur out, and at the same time it made sense for Wainwright to stay and then surrender. McArthur was an attention-seeking showman but that was somewhat necessary to give Americans a hero. And McArthur made some big mistakes but the imagery of being forced to leave, declaring “I will return” and then wading back ashore a couple years later is still pretty badass.

[NinaB · Rating 5 out of 5]

One of my top books this year! Excellent writing, subject matter and pace - highly recommended!

[Dawn Michelle · Rating 5 out of 5]

2025 Barnes and Noble Summer Reading Challenge Wk 4 [Hot and Humid]

Wowsers, this was an intense book.

I really knew little about MacArthur outside of his famous "I will return" to the Philippines when he fled the island...ummm, I mean, was told to leave the island [IMO, he was ordered, but was very willing to flee and leave the others to do the work, which didn't end so well for many, including General Wainwright, but I digress... ]. He always seemed filled with self-importance and arrogance [turns out I was spot-on with those impressions ] and I was never really impressed with him, though I was taught I should be. I was looking forward to reading this to see if I was wrong about what I thought [I was not ].

I knew absolutely nothing about General Wainwright. I do not even remember ever hearing his name in any of the other WW2 books I have read [that doesn't mean he wasn't there, it just means it was so insignificant that it didn't register with me if his name/accomplishments were noted ]. By the end of this book, I was wishing the whole book had been about him. To not only survive the war overall, but also the horrific Bataan Death March, and captivity in Manchuria, he also showed such loyalty and fortitude, as well as caring for his men the best way he knew how [y'all, some of the scenes in his chapters will both anger you and make you weep; I have no idea how they survived even BEFORE capture with the limited food they were sent from Manilla - the only thing is that I believe because of that, they were able to take so much more when they were in captivity ] and truly deserves to be remembered by more people and by history overall. I can see why President Truman felt the way he did [you'll need to read this amazing book to find this out ], about both General Wainwright AND about General MacArthur.

Well-written and impeccably researched, this book has it all - battles, captivity, fleeing battles, staying in the battle and risking captivity all while shrugging off the opportunity to flee [well done General Pugh, very. well. done. ], and how one man idolized a man who went out of his way to ignore or undermine him at every turn, even at the very end.

Excellent read [with one of my top 5 narrators ]; if you are a WW2 buff, or are just, like me, interested in learning more about this time period and its amazing history, this book is for you and I highly recommend it.

Thank you to NetGalley, Jonathan Horn, and Scribner for providing this hardcover ARC in exchange for an honest review.

[Martin Doherty · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is a very detailed, well-researched work about MacArthur and Wainwrights’ actions during the start of World War II. It explores their personal relationship and how that relationship was responsible for some of their decisions during the battles on Bataan and Corregidor . Horn also writes extensively about Wainwright’s incredibly harsh experiences
during his 4 years of captivity by the Japanese .
While filled with a wealth of data and information, Horn’s writing style makes this book easy and hard to put down!!!
It is well worth reading!!!!!

[Josh · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was a fantastic book. The pace was gripping, characterizations vivid, and the story itself poignant and powerful. I leave less sympathetic to General MacArthur than when I began, but that’s probably justified. And yet the conclusion is also well-balanced: both General MacArthur and General Wainwright were necessary for the defeat of the Japanese in the Pacific, especially the Philippines.

[David Conner · Rating 5 out of 5]

I got a chance to attend a book signing by the author and hear him speak about this book. What an excellent book about McArthur and Wainwright during the battle of Manila Philippines. I knew quite a bit about McArthur but never really heard about Wainwright. This book certainly gives a balanced view of both Generaks and the real stories of their war experiences

[John Yingling · Rating 2 out of 5]

I have a much better appreciation of and admiration for Jonathan Wainwright after reading this book; the horrors he endured and the example he set. But gee whiz, I became extremely annoyed and downright angry at the author’s near-constant trashing of Douglas MacArthur. Yes, he was full of pride, made mistakes, and had a Grand Canyon-sized ego. But is it really necessary to build one man up while tearing another man down?

[Socraticgadfly · Rating 4 out of 5]

4.25-4.5, rounded down. Very solid, but not a masterpiece or anything like that.

Per a website early this year, here’s the background I brought. I had read a book about the Bataan Death March, in part because the New Mexico National Guard were among captured US troops. I knew the basics of Bataan and Corregidor. I knew plenty about Dugout Doug’s narcissism and histrionics. I knew basically zero about Wainwright.

Horn, with largely unexplored Johnathan Wainwright papers, shows us a good deal about him, and while coming down hard on Mac, also presents a degree of complexity in him.

Dugout Doug directly lied to Wainwright about several things, including when he had been ordered to leave. Wainwright “took one for the team” in memoirs and elsewhere.

Dugout Doug also didn’t go visit Bataan a second time. But, he may have heard that the “Dugout Doug” song, on pages 117-18, sung to “The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” was being sung there. The chorus:
Dugout Doug come out from hiding,
Dugout Doug come out from hiding,
Send to Franklin the glad tidings
That his troops go starving on.
Non-chorus verses here.

He seemed to be like Hitler and Stalin believing Schopenhauer’s “World as Will and Idea,” too, at least to the point of thinking that if he thought the US Navy could get to Corregidor it could.

After Mac left, he called Wainwright “unbalanced” at the time of his surrender, and strongly fought his Medal of Honor application, raising insinuations about his drinking level, which appeared true, whether it affected him or not.

Pages 142 ff are good on FDR’s political optics about ordering him out, and Australia’s PM begging for an American to lead the SW Pacific theater saving FDR the issue of having Mac come to DC.

Mac went WAY beyond official allotment of staff to take with him, and included a press officer and a stenographer because of course he did.

The cruelness toward Wainwright in general, and above all, in originally opposing his Medal of Honor nomination, is appalling.

Mac also gutted Bob Eichelberger's Medal of Honor possibility.

Mac only had Wainwright at Tokyo Bay because George Marshall told him the American people expected it.

And, setting aside "Dugout Doug," the author does show MacArthur bravery, and not just for the cameras and show. But, Washington, unlike Mac, never made the “the bullet’s never been made to kill me” type claims.

Wainwright's postwar life was sadder than Mac's. His wife had descended into full-blown alcohol problems before he returned home, and voluntary and involuntary commitments never solved that. At the same time, at times she returned home, Skinny never adjusted his own drinking so as not to tempt her. And, on things like Mac's 1948 presidential angling, still wouldn't separate from him.

On the Medal of Honor? Going beyond Horn, arguably both generals got it for symbolic reasons as much as anything.

[Randy · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a rather brilliant idea for a book and it reads like a novel. Generals MacArthur and Wainwright were clearly two of the most famous figures of WWII and for entirely different reasons. MacArthur, the most narcissistic of our general officers, could not be faulted for personal courage, but his constant attention and high priority given to his own reputation diminishes him in the eyes of history. Wainwright, left behind in the Philippines by MacArthur, was forced to surrender his large force of Americans and Filipinos to the Japanese and spent the rest of the war suffering in prison camps worrying about his own reputation. The good news for Wainwright was that the American public and the Pentagon and the White House saw him as a hero. His nomination for the Medal of Honor was blackballed by MacArthur who had a thing about the medal that both he and his Civil War era father had been awarded. At the end of the war, President Truman, who intensely disliked MacArthur and ultimately fired him, gleefully present the Medal of Honor to Wainwright in a White House ceremony. Wainwright and MacArthur were complicated men and their stories, told so clearly in this book, were quite different and make an interesting contrast. Both wives also play a role and Mrs. MacArthur seems the strongest of the two. One of the raps on Wainwright was that he had a drinking problem, not unusual for military people. Apparently, in her attempt to cope with her husband’s captivity and her own wartime responsibilities Mrs. Wainwright alcoholism reached a point where after the war, after he returned a hero with his own ticket tape parades, the General had to have his wife committed. Jean MacArthur who was a generation younger than her husband lived many years after Douglas MacArthur died. The Fate of Generals is a great addition to the literature of WWII.

[Scott Martin · Rating 5 out of 5]

A comparative biography between Generals Douglas MacArthur and Jonathan Wainwright. This work primarily looks at the military service of both men, offering just enough of their respective live background to add context. Both men were connected by the Army and the Philippines, as both had fathers that fought there in the Spanish-American War, and both would have their careers defined by their actions in the Philippines during World War II. MacArthur, as the overall commander who saw the island fall to the Japanese, but did manage to fulfill his promise to return and Wainwright, the general who had the unenviable task of actually surrendering to the Japanese and dealing with that captivity.

Overall, the work leans more sympathetic towards Wainwright, especially given some of the rough hands he got dealt. MacArthur wasn't exactly a sympathetic protagonist here, but Horn does allow for some of the circumstances that MacArthur faced. Still, it does not overtly elevate or denigrate either general too much. With the 80th anniversary of the liberation of the Philippines and all that entailed, this work is timely and one worth reading, regardless of what level of expertise you have for World War II.

[Martin Petersen · Rating 3 out of 5]

The book is well worth reading for what it tells us about Wainwright the man, his doomed defense of the Philippines, and the brutality he suffered with others as a Japanese prisoner. Horn draws on Wainwright's diaries and papers, which had not been available previously. I would have given Horn's book a higher rating if I had not already read McManus's three volume history of the US Army in the Pacific and Rampage by Scott, which details the horrific battle for Manila.
McArthur's massive ego--and his shortcomings not to say errors as a commander--have been well documented. Fate of the Generals adds to the story through its examination of MacArthur's relationship with Wainwright. MacArthur's treatment of Wainwright--including vetoing a Medal of Honor for his Wainwright's gallant stand on Bataan and Corregidor, one of many slights--was unforgiveable, but somehow Wainwright refused to attack MacArthur or display any public resentment. Who is the bigger man? Truman corrected MacArthur's slight by awarding Wainwright the Medal of Honor, and Truman maintained that Roosevelt left the wrong general on Bataan and should have rescused Wainwright put him in charge.

[Lloyd · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was a fascinating account of the fates of the two U.S. army generals who were central to the defense of the Philippines in 1941 and 1942. Of course, America lost that campaign to the Japanese as American forces were overrun, first on the peninsula of Bataan and then at the island fortress of Corregidor in Manilla Bay. More realistically, the Americans and their Philippine allies weren’t overrun by superior forces as much as they were defeated due to a lack of food supplies and ammunition; the result of the crippling of the United States fleet at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1942. General Douglas MacArthur was the overall commanding officer in the Philippines at that time. General Jonathan Wainwright was MacArthur’s second in command. Wainwright became the overall commanding officer who surrendered the American and Philippine forces in April of 1942. Wainwright came into overall command once MacArthur was order by President Franklin Roosevelt to leave the Philippines in early March of 1942. The defense of the Philippines is fully detailed by the author. Two very different fates awaited the two generals. MacArthur went on to command all allied forces in the Southwest Pacific in World War II, whereas Wainwright became the highest-ranking American prisoner of war. He was held captive by the Japanese for approximately 3 and one-half years. Wainwright was treated cruelly by the Japanese who did not respect soldiers who surrendered. They felt that was a dishonorable act by a soldier who should either die in battle or commit suicide at the end. Wainwright’s fate at the hands of the Japanese is not a well-known story. It is laid out in detail in this well researched book. MacArthur went on too much acclaim as a result of his success in pushing back and defeating the Japanese. He even got a measure of revenge by retaking the Philippines back from the Japanese in 1944-1945. His story is also told in detail by this author. This is a fascinating and detailed account of that period in American history and now a must read for anyone interested in World War II history.

[Ryann · Rating 5 out of 5]

General Douglas MacArthur famously told his soldiers in the Philippines “I shall return!”. He said this in 1942 as he made his escape to Australia, due to orders given by FDR.

But what happened to the Americans who stayed to face starvation and an imposing Imperial Japanese army, and who was the general he left behind?

Enter Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright.

This book covers the period of MacArthur’s departure, to the end of the war. You will learn how Wainwright came to the decision to surrender to the Japanese after the fall of Corrigador, and what occurred in captivity.

When I picked up this book I only knew the basics of the war in the Philippines, mostly MacArthur’s story, and knew nothing of Wainwright. Jonathan Horn did an excellent job telling his story and what happened to him post war.

An enjoyable read!

[Robert McKinley · Rating 5 out of 5]

Outstanding Story of Two Different Generals Who Helped Win W.W. II

It was great learn about what really happened to Wainwright after the fall of Corrigador and how he survived the abuse of being a Japanese POW. I doubt that MacArthur could have done so. Truman was right that Roosevelt ordered the wrong General out from a moral perspective, but from a political standpoint, it was the correct decision. The men and women who did survive in the Philippines, did so because of Wainwright's decisions. Had MacArthur been there many more would died for his glory and no practical military gain. Well written and researched. It reads like a novel.

[Rick · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a truly unique view of WW2 and the pacific campaign. We always get the MacArthur exclusive view of the battles. By now we can almost read them ourselves. But this time we get the view from Wainwright's prospective as well as a focus on the Philippines. MacArthur is the part of a larger story and not the sole story. The story of his imprisonment is the best part of the story. It is so new and so fresh but also eye opening. You see how bad the Japanese treat the highest ranking officer in their custody shows you how they would treat all POWs.

Truly unique and a must read,









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[Teresa Brock · Rating 5 out of 5]

Jonathan Horn delivers a compelling dual portrait of Generals Douglas MacArthur and Jonathan Wainwright, reframing a familiar World War II narrative through the lens of honor, sacrifice, and public memory. With crisp prose and meticulous research, Horn contrasts MacArthur’s dramatic escape and triumphant return with Wainwright’s quiet heroism and brutal captivity. The book challenges simplistic notions of valor, offering a sobering meditation on the cost of leadership and the ways history remembers — and forgets — its most loyal servants.

[Todd Payne · Rating 3 out of 5]

I enjoyed this book, but found it a bit lacking. I knew next to nothing about General Wainwright so I enjoyed learning more about his service. That said, this felt very much like a survey -- little depth was provided on the major events that took place during the fall of the Phillipines and the later war in the Pacific. The maps in the book btw are terrible and really impossible to read - and that was a major miss. All in all, I had hoped for more.

[Jason Bixman · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is the way popular histories should be written. Filled with sources and written in an easy style that still retains an academic feel, it’s an overview of a time I wasn’t aware I knew so little of. The side-by-side storytelling of MacArthur and Wainwright in The Pacific is so good that they seem inseparable.

[Aaron Davis · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was such a well researched and well told history of two great men who played their roles in WWII. I especially appreciate the author's willingness to call out who he believed to be the true hero of the Philippines in Wainwright. I'll be picking up more of Mr. Horn's work soon.

[Robert · Rating 5 out of 5]

An incredible book. Horn pulls no punches about the two men at the center of this book. He is very upfront about the strengths and weaknesses about MacArthur and Wainwright, and tells their stories very well. One of the best written books I’ve read in a while, I can’t wait to read his book on Le.

[Jeff Mincy · Rating 3 out of 5]

Good, but not much new

Very broad overview. I learned some new things and it is well written as to never get boring or tedious, but is definitely not a deep dive into either of these two men.

[Joni · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent. One of the best books I've read in a while. I didn't know that much about Wainwright- history has passed him by.

[Gregory Miller · Rating 4 out of 5]

3.5 stars. It was interesting and I learned a lot. However, there were some portions that I found to be a struggle to get through.

[Fixie Nice · Rating 4 out of 5]

A fascinating read on the leadership styles of two leaders in difficult circumstances, learned lots about a particular bit of ww2 history I didn’t know much about

[clark holley · Rating 3 out of 5]

poor writing, plastic characters

[Brion · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent book if you can stomach more of MacArthur's ego and antics in support of his legend.

[Mark B · Rating 5 out of 5]

Great tribute to a forgotten WWII hero.