AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep: Leading and Teaching in the Age of Artificial Intelligence

by Sean O'Callaghan, Paul A. Hoffman

Since ChatGPT burst into the public consciousness in 2022, AI has thoroughly infiltrated everyday life. Machines can now take on work once thought to be solely the domain of human beings--from writing college essays to composing worship music. How should Christians respond to this brave new technology?

In this accessible introduction to AI, Sean O'Callaghan and Paul Hoffman explore its social and ethical impacts for ministry and teaching. The authors shed light on the biblical vision for human flourishing--and on how AI can help or hinder that flourishing. Avoiding both alarmism and uncritical acceptance, O'Callaghan and Hoffman offer resources and practical tools for using AI in our classrooms and congregations.

AI can write a generic three-point sermon, but it cannot replace an authentic encounter between humans and the divine. In a time of cultural confusion, O'Callaghan and Hoffman encourage readers to embrace the clarity found in the gospel. The book includes a foreword by A. Trevor Sutton.

Genres: Technology, Nonfiction, Theology

208 pages, Paperback

Published March 18, 2025

About the author

Sean O'Callaghan (PhD, University of Liverpool) is associate professor of religious and theological studies at Salve Regina University, where he also serves as a coordinator of the AI Initiative. He previously served as director of the PhD program in humanities and technology and is currently a faculty member in that program.

Reviews

[Faithful Intellect · Rating 3 out of 5]

Book Review Rating: 6/10

This Book Is:
- easy to read and understand
- geared to those in ministry
- a surface level intro to AI and Christianity with citations to dig deeper if desired
- focused on providing principles for how to think about Christianity and AI

This Book Is Not:
- geared for tech savvy people
- focused on providing many conclusions for how to integrate AI and Christianity
- limited to or focused just on generative AI and ChatGPT

My Takeaways:
- Intelligence Doesn't Define What It Means to be Human: What does it mean for humanity when machines become more intelligent than humans? If it is our intelligence that makes humans special, then AI is viewed more as a threat and a risk. In the Christian faith, God created humans in his image. It is the image of God that differentiates humanity from the rest of creation, not our level of intelligence. Artificial intelligence will never bare God's image. Therefore, AI can never fully usurp what it means to be human because intelligence doesn't define what it means to be human.

- Technology Isn't Neutral: Some have argued that technology is a neutral tool that can either be used for good or evil. This argument doesn't acknowledge the way that technology forms us in a specific way regardless of the righteousness of our motivation or the goodness of the outcome. The authors view AI as an accelerator for the technological trends that we are already seeing with the use of smartphones and social media. The smartphone is not a neutral tool. The way the smartphone allows us to engage the world around us changes our attention span, what we value, and opens us up to be formed by the content that others create for us. AI is created by corporations motivated by profit.

My Critiques:
- The Way the Spirit Works: The authors claim that AI should not be used to generate whole sermons or worship services. While I agree with the overall claim, the reasoning provided focuses on the relationship between God and the preacher and not God and the audience. They claimed that a sermon is intended to be a word from God to his people. The preacher receives a word from God and communicates it to the people. Because AI doesn't have a soul, it cannot receive this word from God. I think this ignores the way the Spirit works in those who hear the sermon. Regardless of the origin of the content, God can use it to communicate his gospel and his word to his people, even AI generated content. I think the impact is more on the preacher than the congregation.

- Human Dignity Over Human Flourishing: The authors main thesis is that technology should be evaluated based on whether it advances or hinders human flourishing. My critique is that human flourishing is not the ultimate value or goal that Christians should use to measure the impact. Flourishing brings to mind success, prosperity, wealth, pleasure, and an easy life. Even at a minimum, it would entail a certain level of comfort and a lack of suffering.

There are several problems with this approach. First, the definition of flourishing is going to look very different to different people. The partisan politics in America in recent years has highlighted the fact that many evangelicals have wildly different ideas for what flourishing looks like. AI could be used by someone in a way that they believe advances flourishing and another believes that the same thing hinders flourishing. Second, flourishing is not how Jesus would describe the Christian life. Sometimes we are called to suffer with Christ. Following Jesus has a cost. It is possible to reframe suffering as flourishing with the right perspective, but I don't think that is what is being communicated in this book. There could be situations that lead to human flourishing at the expense of the people using it or consuming it.

I think focusing on human dignity instead of human flourishing would be more appropriate. Human dignity is a clearer biblical value and there would likely be more of a consensus on what advances or hinders dignity. There could also be examples of using technology that would advance human flourishing at the cost of human dignity. In that case, I would choose dignity over flourishing.

Click here to read the full review at Faithful Intellect.

Thanks to the publisher and NetGalley for an advanced copy of this book in exchange for an honest review.

[Jenn "JR" · Rating 3 out of 5]

The authors attempt to draw parallels between theological premises with AI -- landing squarely on the heart of Value Sensitive Design (VSD) and Human-Centered AI (HCAI). They aim for their audience to learn to engage with AI in specific ways that contribute to human flourishing, countering dystopian fears of AI replacing humans.

This book serves as a sound primer on AI for non-technical readers. The authors provide extensive background on theological premises, the nature of intelligence, transhumanism, and basic concepts like fact-checking information online. It reminds me of annotated bibliographies from graduate-level history courses: over 30% of the ebook ARC consists of selected references and endnote annotations. While the author has clearly researched the topic and includes a wide array of older, secular references, he quotes Yuval Noah Harari—a figure known for misogynistic, bigoted, and anti-religious views. For less widely-read individuals, this may not be an issue, but it raises questions about why a theologian would include someone whose beliefs contradict the book's goals.

Ultimately, this book is akin to "Omnivore's Dilemma" but with guidelines like: be judicious in your use of AI due to its real-world consequences (e.g., resource consumption altering landscapes) and intellectual/social impacts (e.g., perpetuating biases, affecting attention spans). As they write, "Technology is not neutral. It is value-laden."

They encourage their readers to use AI wisely—such as for translating content—but don't rely on it for creating sermons or songs of praise. Creation of praise is a human act; machines cannot pray. "Worship is something done for God and by humans." Such praise should be "authentic, unassisted, and unsullied by technology." One cannot become a Christian simply through desire or reading—"Christian formation and discipleship require deep rootedness in a faith community."

The authors recommend the following:

- "Lectio Divina" -- Deep reading and reflection, including private prayer and group discussion, to ensure information becomes part of one's inner self.
- Active Interaction with People -- Reclaiming the art of conversation, switching off AI (e.g., social media fasts), and setting routines so homes do not revolve around AI.
- Focal Practices -- Engaging in activities like reading actual books uninterrupted, practicing music, playing sports, creating arts or crafts, or walking in nature.

By seeking tangible, concrete practices, we recenter human experience on the immediate, material world and people—in other words: mindfulness.

Here's the plan that the authors recommend:

1. Embodied habits: cooking meals, nature walking, fishing, birding, painting, pottery, knitting, visual arts and crafts at least once a week.
2. Place habits to "anchor humans into a particular terra firma" such as gardening and homemaking (which encompasses hospitality, creating a warm welcoming atmosphere).
3. Time-bound habits: silent listening, prayer, sitting by a window quietly without devices, planned breaks from devices/social media, and observing the liturgical calendar which "is a richly communal and ecclesial way of engaging in time-bound habits."
4. Social habits: taking communion, sharing meals with others (like potlucks), mentoring others.

Overall, choosing intentionally those habits and activities which "rehumanize us against the dehumanizing effects of technology." Even as a non-Christian, I fully support these kinds of recommendations.

"We need to have grown-up conversations in our seminaries and churches to prepare" and "to really understand the technology and to live Christian lives in this new world." Finally - the authors affirm "we remain dedicated to a human-centered perspective, which emphasizes the materiality of creation and the creatureliness (the corporeality or embodiment) of humans." Machines are not people and never will be.

[E.R. Burgess · Rating 3 out of 5]

AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep offers an accessible introduction to artificial intelligence for a lay audience, focusing heavily on its implications for Christians. The book is structured with clarity, featuring summaries and discussion questions at the end of each chapter, making it a practical resource for church book studies or small group discussions. It delves into the basics of AI technology, its history, current applications, and its potential risks—all filtered through a biblical lens.

While the book is effective at explaining AI to newcomers, its insistence on interpreting the subject through Christian theology limits its universal appeal. This approach can feel, at times, like efforts to connect astrology to astronomy—there may be shared data points, but the moral framework tied to Christianity narrows the scope of its insights. The moralizing tone and exclusive connection to Christian faith make it harder to resonate with readers who approach AI from global, secular, or interfaith perspectives.

The chapters on Christian formation and ministry leadership in the age of AI offer thoughtful prompts for believers navigating this new technological landscape. However, by focusing so singularly on Christian audiences, the authors miss an opportunity to contribute ideas that could inspire a broader, more universal dialogue about ethical AI practices. Instead of fostering globally relevant conversations, the book seems designed primarily to reassure Christians about integrating AI into their worldview.

On the positive side, the book succeeds in raising awareness about the risks and benefits of AI, and it encourages readers to think critically about its role in their lives. For Christians, it may serve as a starting point for grappling with these issues. However, readers looking for a more comprehensive or globally inclusive exploration of AI ethics might find this book too narrowly focused.

[Kyleigh Dunn · Rating 2 out of 5]

This book was a good start, but overall, I expected more from it than it delivered.

The authors start by defining AI (“systems that display intelligent behaviour by analysing their environment and taking actions—with some degree of autonomy—to achieve specific goals”), differentiating between various kinds of AI. They also explain how it works and how AI’s algorithms are vastly different from human functioning. Then they look at various ways AI is used today and how effective those uses are.

In chapter 3, they turn to the image of God in order to dive deeper into how AI’s “intelligence” is different from the image of God in humans and to lay a foundation for how AI might help or hinder human flourishing. The main way they see AI being a problem is if we cede authority and agency God has given us to machines.

A good summary quote: “When used improperly, AI impinges on the dignity and identity conferred upon God’s image bearers, which include the unique endowments of reason, relationship, and role. To put it succinctly, AI has the potential to make humans less human.” But they also argue that AI has the potential to help humans flourish and “partake in God’s quest to restore all things.”

Chapter 4 looks at technology more generally and how tools change the “ecosystem” and not just speed things up, but also how AI is different than most of the other technologies we’ve had before. Chapter 5 addresses issues of truth, flourishing, accelerated human life, and family in light of AI. Chapter 6 provides good, grounding habits for real human connection and a slower pace of life that pushes back on the dangers of AI and our technological age. Almost all of these aren’t Christian specific.

To this point, the book was really good, though I had a few quibbles here and there (like my model of imago Dei is a bit different, but doesn’t really change their main argument). Where I disagree with the authors is in some of the conclusions they draw in the final chapters.

Here they talk more specifically about potential pastoral uses of AI, such as writing sermons, songs, or aiding in counseling. They note that AI doesn’t have emotional intelligence, intuition, wisdom, or lived experience, so that means it can’t replace human counseling, and that since it can’t worship, it can’t write whole worship songs. They briefly touch on VR but in a way that seems to miss that Sunday isn’t just about worship but about doing so with God’s people.

Then they go into areas requiring caution, like editing and research, saying beware of the temptation to over-rely on it, but still seemingly approving the idea of AI as a collaborator (earlier terms used were “co-creator” and “partner”). Other cautious uses were for creating things like job postings and volunteer descriptions.

Finally, the areas they say consider going ahead with AI use: marketing, images, content generating in other areas, as well as SEO, website management, human capital management, and Bible translation. They conclude that “when struggling with inertia or complacency, we can use computers to inject some innovation.”

Wrapping up the book, the authors summarize with this statement: “If this book is about anything, it is not about understanding ourselves as techno-humans, fused with the algorithms of machine learning; rather, it is about the need to understand technology as our ancestors understood their ploughs, looms, shovels, and pickaxes— as tools used to complete a job, not to take over our lives so that we become products divorced from family, friends, emotions, and our living history.”

The good:
- I wish I’d had this book to reference while writing my paper on GenAI and J.R.R. Tolkien. The initial chapters are thoughtful and helpful and lay good groundwork often lacking in Christian discussions of AI.

- Their discussion of AI, conspiracy theories, and Gnosticism is thought-provoking.

- I like their framework for considering valid AI uses, the question of whether it will help or hinder human flourishing. But, I disagree with some of their conclusions as to what would help or hinder.

Critique:
- Despite defining various forms of AI early on, when discussing actual uses for it, they don’t differentiate between GenAI and other forms, which muddies the waters, especially when talking about legitimate uses for AI.

- The bulk of the book focused on their foundations of what AI is, what humans are, etc., which was good, but it dragged, and then the application sections didn’t fully recognize the implications of some of the issues brought up earlier. The first half of the book felt fairly cautious towards AI, but then in the last two chapters, it seemed that they contradicted themselves on a few points:
o Earlier they noted how AI doesn’t have emotional intelligence, but recommended it for composing more emotionally intelligent emails.
o They bring up cautions about losing our agency and authority, and giving up some of our humanity with use of AI, and then note that if we’re struggling with inertia or complacency, AI can help with innovation. Maybe they mean something different by complacency, but in my mind, the solution to complacency is to learn to work hard, not to outsource the task to a machine. This is especially the case with writer’s block; the work it takes to push through is a productive struggle that betters you as a writer.
o They rightly note that AI shouldn’t be used to write sermons or worship songs because it can’t worship and doesn’t have the Spirit… but then approve AI usage for Bible translation, which seems inconsistent to me.

Overall, there is a lot good in this book, but I think the authors fail to fully reckon with what human speech is and the degree to which regular usage of GenAI will lead to the deterioration of communication (I highly, highly recommend everyone read Jeffrey Bilbro’s article in Plough Magazine, “What Problem Does ChatGPT Solve?”).

(I received an ARC of this book to review from NetGalley)

[Dale Pearl · Rating 3 out of 5]

An Advanced Review Copy was provided by the publisher in Exchange for a review.

In the realm of AI, where we're pushing the boundaries of what machines can do, "AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep" by Sean O'Callaghan is like a roadmap through the uncharted territory of integrating AI into education and ministry.

Content:
This book dives deep into how AI can revolutionize teaching and preaching. O'Callaghan isn’t just talking about replacing jobs but enhancing human creativity and spiritual connection. Here's what he says:

"Machines can now take on work once thought to be solely the domain of human beings—from writing college essays to composing worship music."
This is the kind of disruption we need, not to sideline humans but to amplify our capabilities.

"AI can write a generic three-point sermon, but it cannot replace an authentic encounter between humans and the divine."
True, AI might not capture the soul of human interaction, but it's a tool for those moments when inspiration needs a boost.

"Avoiding both alarmism and uncritical acceptance, O'Callaghan and Hoffman offer resources and practical tools for using AI in our classrooms and congregations."
This balanced view is crucial; we must navigate AI's potential with wisdom, not fear or blind faith.

"The authors shed light on the biblical vision for human flourishing—and on how AI can help or hinder that flourishing."
It's about understanding the dual-edged sword of technology; we must use it to elevate human life, not diminish it.

"In a time of cultural confusion, O'Callaghan and Hoffman encourage readers to embrace the clarity found in the gospel."
Clarity in our confused times is what we're all after, isn't it? AI might help us navigate, but the compass remains human.

Ratings Breakdown:

Innovation: 8/10 - The book doesn't just talk AI; it explores how it can be woven into the very fabric of teaching and spiritual guidance, which is pretty groundbreaking.
Practicality: 7/10 - It provides actionable insights, though I'd love to see more on how to implement these in diverse educational environments.
Depth of Analysis: 9/10 - O'Callaghan goes beyond surface-level discussion, diving into ethical implications, which is essential for any tech adoption.
Optimism vs. Realism: 8/10 - Strikes a good balance, offering hope without ignoring the pitfalls.
Inspirational Value: 7/10 - While it's not going to make you jump out of your seat, it does light a path for thoughtful integration of AI in human-centric fields.

Conclusion:

"AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep" isn't just another book on AI; it's a manual for those of us who see AI not as a replacement but as an augmentation to human endeavor in education and beyond. O'Callaghan provides a vision where AI can be the shepherd, guiding us towards new possibilities while reminding us of our uniquely human qualities.

"We're at a pivotal moment where we can decide if AI will be a tool for human enlightenment or a mere echo of our own voices. This book is a guide map for choosing the former."
If you're in education or ministry, or just passionate about the intersection of technology and humanity, this book is worth your time. It’s a call to action to use AI wisely and with purpose, ensuring that in our pursuit of progress, we don't forget what makes us human

[Jennie · Rating 5 out of 5]

This new and upcoming book release, AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep – Leading and Teaching in the Age of Artificial Intelligence by Sean O’Callaghan; Paul A. Hoffman covers explaining what AI (artificial intelligence) is, the history of it, how it is being used, and the future of AI. Along with the pros and cons from a biblical perspective. I personally learned a lot! I recommend everyone read this or least start researching this information yourself.

The book is set up with a summary and questions at the end of each chapter, making it a great book to use in a book study group or to discuss with others. The first part of the book goes into explaining what AI is and the potential risks, along with how it is currently being used. Some of this is very worrisome, and it is beneficial for us to be aware of it so that we can be prepared and learn how to use it as Christians. The chapters on How Should Christians Be Formed and Discipled in the Age of AI & How Should Ministry Leaders Approach AI is something all churches should read and discuss.

Here are a few of my highlights I took while I read:

Artificial intelligence, with its far-reaching impacts, isn’t going away, and it will challenge us…
Sometimes, we won’t even be aware that it is running our lives, our surroundings, in the background.
AI can unearth new drugs that heal and unearth drugs that destroy human life on a massive scale.
The consumption of resources required to construct AI is altering landscapes across the globe.
Everything-including humans and all forms of technology – exists for His purposes and glory and should align with His revealed character and Word.
Humans must not over-rely on machine learning. If they do, they are in danger…
AI has the potential to make humans less human. At the same time, AI has the potential to help humans…
Technology is not neutral. It is value laden; it leads us in certain directions, and it prompts us to do or use this instead of that.
AI can develop psychological tricks to gain trust and influence, reading and manipulating our emotions and behaviors with a frightening level of depth…
One estimate is that by 2026, up to 90% of what we see on our screens will be the product of generative AI.
No space if free of AI generated noise.
We risk losing the ability to think deliberately.
How do we prepare our congregations, students, and ministers to flourish and teach others how to flourish in a world that is saturated with AI?

[Katie Betts · Rating 3 out of 5]

Since ChatGPT’s rise in 2022, AI has reshaped daily life—including the church. This accessible guide helps Christians navigate AI’s impact on teaching and ministry, offering theological insight, ethical reflection, and practical tools. Without fear or hype, it invites believers to discern how AI can support true human flourishing rooted in the gospel.

Summer church staff book club pick 🎉🎉 Though I had read the description, I probably never would’ve picked this one up without reading it alongside colleagues. The first chapter was—albeit necessary—a doozy to trudge through. While the authors present the information in an accessible way (you don’t have to be tech-savvy to follow it), I’d actually recommend skipping this if you’re ahead of everyday tech culture—it’s more for those still catching up.

That said, the book lays a solid foundation for understanding what AI is and what it isn’t. This opens the door to thoughtful reflection on history (because what’s a Christian philosophy discussion without a surprise cameo from our old friend Gnosticism?), biblical anthropology, and how Scripture shapes our discernment of AI’s benefits and its slippery slopes.

The authors offer a compelling call to resist all-consuming AI use—go outside and talk to people, be a real human!—and they provide practical examples of how AI can (and definitely should not) be used in ministry. If anything, this book showed me that the conversation between AI 🤝🏻 ministry is only just beginning—and this is a timely and thoughtful place to start.

Perfect for you if you like:
Thoughtful tech discussion without tech jargon
Books that blend technology with theology
Conversations about human identity and dignity

Similar to:
Made in Our Image by Stephen Driscoll
The Age of AI by Jason Thacker
AI Goes to Church by Todd Korpi
**I have not read ANY of these

[Nathan Marone]

This one was disappointing. I had picked it up because the subtitle pointed to a book about "leading and teaching." In particular, I was looking for some approaches to AI and pastoral ministry. There was really only one chapter that touched on that subject, and then only glancingly. Most of the book was just a primer on AI and some basic tech philosophy that I'm well-versed in already. This book might be decent for someone just starting to think about this subject, but there's a glut of books that already fill that particular need.

[Sean · Rating 4 out of 5]

Overall, this is a solid book on a topic that is still very new to society. I didn’t expect it to contain groundbreaking information or studies, given how recently AI has emerged, but as someone involved in both church and academics—the intended audience—I found it to be well written.

My only critique is that it felt geared toward an older audience, as much of the content was quite entry-level. That said, I was pleasantly surprised at times and walked away with several valuable teaching points to share with my staff.

And yes… I did throw the above review into chatgpt for a quick proof ;)

[Carson Knauff · Rating 3 out of 5]

What separates this book from AI Goes To Church is this one does a great job of showing you the view from 10,000 feet. The issue is it never gets into the nitty gritty. You can say that’s because they want you to draw your own conclusions or they don’t want to date themselves with early AI predictions. Yet it never becomes practical and makes you feel like there are a 100 pages missing.

[Richard Wolff · Rating 2 out of 5]

Scattershot, with limited attempts to interconnect points and a lack of progressive development of a central thesis to be truly insightful and satisfying.

[Taten Shirley · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fantastic examination of a Christian approach to human flourishing in the age of AI

[Rob O'Lynn · Rating 4 out of 5]

I am reviewing this book for the Journal for the Evangelical Homiletics Society and my review will appear there.

[Aaron · Rating 5 out of 5]

How is ChatGPT Changing the Church? In AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep, Sean O'Callaghan and Paul A. Hoffman explore what it means to lead and teach in the age of artificial intelligence.


The book begins by introducing various definitions and types of artificial intelligence. AI operates through algorithms, enabling it to perform both simple and complex tasks. It can gather and analyze information and make decisions. The current and potential implications of AI are widespread—touching on religion, spirituality, and morality, as well as education, media, entertainment, and the arts. I was amazed to see how far technology has come, but also aware of the weight and significance it carries.


A key reflection from the book is what it means to be human from a biblical perspective: God is the only eternal being. Everything, including humans and all forms of technology, exists for His purposes and glory and should align with His revealed character and rule. AI functions best when it supports the relationships between God, humanity, and the created order. However, when machine learning begins to undermine divine and human bonds, it must be restrained.



The Imago Dei

The book emphasizes that the Imago Dei—the image of God—is crucial to understanding our dignity and identity as humans. AI has the potential to dehumanize, but it also has the potential to help humans flourish and participate in God’s work to restore all things.


Being human in the age of technology means being shaped by it. Not only does technology shape our surroundings, but it also shapes our souls. Christians are called to take an active role in shaping and directing technology so that it reflects kingdom principles and leads to freedom and flourishing, rather than bondage.


The book suggests that AI can be a helpful tool for ministry, particularly in streamlining and simplifying administrative tasks. It takes a cautious approach to using AI for sermon preparation and research, challenging preachers to remain responsible and discerning. One of the book’s strongest arguments is that congregants should expect more than AI-generated sermons—because AI has no soul, and therefore cannot commune with God or with other souls.



Actual Relationships

Spiritual formation happens through discipleship and sanctification. While the Holy Spirit is the central agent in this process, God has ordained that bodily, corporate practices play a role in our growth. This encouraged me to more fully seek and appreciate the tangible presence of others in our corporate gatherings as we worship, edify, and encourage one another. Rather than artificial connection, we must seek actual relationships—with God and with each other—as we pursue what it means to flourish as humans in faith.



I received a media copy of AI Shepherds and Electric Sheep and this is my honest review.