What do you think?
Rate this book
Emperor of the Seas: Kublai Khan and the Making of China
Control the sea, and you control everything...a gripping tale of naval warfare, dynastic rivalry, and technical innovation, from the author of the classic work Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.
Genghis Khan built a formidable land empire, but he never crossed the sea. Yet by the time his grandson Kublai Khan had defeated the last vestiges of the Song empire and established the Yuan dynasty in 1279, the Mongols controlled the most powerful navy in the world. How did a nomad come to conquer China and master the sea? Based on ten years of research and a lifetime of immersion in Mongol culture and tradition, Emperor of the Seas brings this little-known story vibrantly to life.
Kublai Khan is one of history's most fascinating characters. He brought Islamic mathematicians to his court, where they invented modern cartography and celestial measurement. He transformed the world's largest land mass into a unified, diverse and economically progressive empire, introducing paper money. And, after bitter early setbacks, he transformed China into an outward looking sea-faring empire.
By the end of his reign, the Chinese were building and supplying remarkable ships to transport men, grain, and weapons over vast distances, of a size and dexterity that would be inconceivable in Europe for hundreds of years. Khan had come to a brilliant control the sea, and you control everything.
A master storyteller with an unparalleled grasp of Mongol sources, Jack Weatherford shows how Chinese naval hegemony changed the world forever - revolutionizing world commerce and transforming tastes as far away as England and France.
Genghis Khan built a formidable land empire, but he never crossed the sea. Yet by the time his grandson Kublai Khan had defeated the last vestiges of the Song empire and established the Yuan dynasty in 1279, the Mongols controlled the most powerful navy in the world. How did a nomad come to conquer China and master the sea? Based on ten years of research and a lifetime of immersion in Mongol culture and tradition, Emperor of the Seas brings this little-known story vibrantly to life.
Kublai Khan is one of history's most fascinating characters. He brought Islamic mathematicians to his court, where they invented modern cartography and celestial measurement. He transformed the world's largest land mass into a unified, diverse and economically progressive empire, introducing paper money. And, after bitter early setbacks, he transformed China into an outward looking sea-faring empire.
By the end of his reign, the Chinese were building and supplying remarkable ships to transport men, grain, and weapons over vast distances, of a size and dexterity that would be inconceivable in Europe for hundreds of years. Khan had come to a brilliant control the sea, and you control everything.
A master storyteller with an unparalleled grasp of Mongol sources, Jack Weatherford shows how Chinese naval hegemony changed the world forever - revolutionizing world commerce and transforming tastes as far away as England and France.
357 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 2024
74 people are currently reading
1202 people want to read
About the author
Jack Weatherford
13 books743 followersJack McIver Weatherford is the DeWitt Wallace Professor of anthropology at Macalester College in Minnesota. He is best known for his 2004 book, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. In 2006, he was awarded the Order of the Polar Star, and the Order of Genghis Khan in 2022, Mongolia’s two highest national honors. Moreover, he was honoured with the Order of the Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho by the Government of Bolivia in 2014.
His books in the late 20th century on the influence of Native American cultures have been translated into numerous languages. In addition to publishing chapters and reviews in academic books and journals, Weatherford has published numerous articles in national newspapers to popularize his historic and anthropological coverage of Native American cultures, as well as the American political culture in Congress in the 20th century. In recent years, he has concentrated on the Mongols by looking at their impact since the time that Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes in 1206.
His books in the late 20th century on the influence of Native American cultures have been translated into numerous languages. In addition to publishing chapters and reviews in academic books and journals, Weatherford has published numerous articles in national newspapers to popularize his historic and anthropological coverage of Native American cultures, as well as the American political culture in Congress in the 20th century. In recent years, he has concentrated on the Mongols by looking at their impact since the time that Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes in 1206.
Ratings & Reviews
Friends & Following
Create a free account to discover what your friends think of this book!
Community Reviews
Displaying 1 - 30 of 43 reviews
November 6, 2024
How much do you know about the Mongol empires? If you grew up in the U.S., chances are you answered, “Absolutely nothing.” The world is a big place, and world history has never been much of a priority in American schools; we study various phases of U.S. history, state history, and in a wild flurry of internationalism, some districts now teach a semester of Canadian history. The single year of world history in high school is usually devoted to World War II, which is impossible to teach without including information about Europe, and a smidgen about Japan along with, yes, more American history. There you go. Here’s your diploma.
In my retirement years, I have reveled in the freedom to learn about the history that wasn’t on the syllabus for what I studied, and later, what I was hired to teach. Having marched my way through various other times and places, I realized that I knew nothing about the Mongol khans. I read one novel about Genghis, and I was hooked.
My thanks go to NetGalley and Bloomsbury for the review copy. You can buy this book now.
If you’re going to read a single nonfiction book about the Mongols, this would be a fine choice. Jack Weatherford’s research is outstanding, including works in several non-English languages that most of us couldn’t hope to read on our own. His scholarship is so meticulous that he has been awarded both of Mongolia’s top national awards. Not half bad, for a boy from South Carolina. And while this book is not written as narrative nonfiction, the tone is conversational, the language accessible. I read it daily at lunch time, and it wasn’t long before I was shouting out random, amazing facts to family members that dared venture into the kitchen.
It began with Genghis, a young man whose family was left homeless, left to freeze or starve when his father and protector died. With desperation, talent, and ruthlessness that he learned well, he turned it around, and as he grew up he vanquished his enemies, brought the most talented and trustworthy elements to himself, and let the devil take the rest. His instinct for military strategy was a thing of pure genius. But this book is mostly not about him; it’s about his grandson, Kublai Khan, who expanded the empire Genghis began until his domain stretched from Baghdad to the far shores of China.
Until Kublai arrived, Mongols were an inland people, but it was Kublai who realized that in order to expand and become a world power, he had to have ocean-going vessels and people that knew how to use them. The peoples of Southern China were tough to defeat, but once it was done, he was able to use their technologies in ways that were of immeasurable value.
The progression looked like this (in a very simplified version): Genghis conquered, and took no prisoners, with a few rare exceptions. Kublai conquered, but also used diplomacy, highlighting the potential benefits of becoming a Mongol subject; he didn’t routinely kill everyone he defeated. And under Kublai’s son Temur, the Mongols segued from physical battle to economic dominance, making China’s ports the ideal destination of merchants from all over the world.
One of the most interesting things I learned had to do with the authority that was vested in the women of the highest placed families. When the men rode off to conquer, it was women that looked after the business interests and saw to local governance. It worked out nicely; Europeans should have taken note.
I can’t compare this book to others because I haven’t read any others on this topic cover to cover, but I wouldn’t let that stop you. If the Mongols are persuaded that Weatherford has done the work and done it well, who can argue? I learned a great deal and enjoyed it, and so I highly recommend it to you.
In my retirement years, I have reveled in the freedom to learn about the history that wasn’t on the syllabus for what I studied, and later, what I was hired to teach. Having marched my way through various other times and places, I realized that I knew nothing about the Mongol khans. I read one novel about Genghis, and I was hooked.
My thanks go to NetGalley and Bloomsbury for the review copy. You can buy this book now.
If you’re going to read a single nonfiction book about the Mongols, this would be a fine choice. Jack Weatherford’s research is outstanding, including works in several non-English languages that most of us couldn’t hope to read on our own. His scholarship is so meticulous that he has been awarded both of Mongolia’s top national awards. Not half bad, for a boy from South Carolina. And while this book is not written as narrative nonfiction, the tone is conversational, the language accessible. I read it daily at lunch time, and it wasn’t long before I was shouting out random, amazing facts to family members that dared venture into the kitchen.
It began with Genghis, a young man whose family was left homeless, left to freeze or starve when his father and protector died. With desperation, talent, and ruthlessness that he learned well, he turned it around, and as he grew up he vanquished his enemies, brought the most talented and trustworthy elements to himself, and let the devil take the rest. His instinct for military strategy was a thing of pure genius. But this book is mostly not about him; it’s about his grandson, Kublai Khan, who expanded the empire Genghis began until his domain stretched from Baghdad to the far shores of China.
Until Kublai arrived, Mongols were an inland people, but it was Kublai who realized that in order to expand and become a world power, he had to have ocean-going vessels and people that knew how to use them. The peoples of Southern China were tough to defeat, but once it was done, he was able to use their technologies in ways that were of immeasurable value.
The progression looked like this (in a very simplified version): Genghis conquered, and took no prisoners, with a few rare exceptions. Kublai conquered, but also used diplomacy, highlighting the potential benefits of becoming a Mongol subject; he didn’t routinely kill everyone he defeated. And under Kublai’s son Temur, the Mongols segued from physical battle to economic dominance, making China’s ports the ideal destination of merchants from all over the world.
One of the most interesting things I learned had to do with the authority that was vested in the women of the highest placed families. When the men rode off to conquer, it was women that looked after the business interests and saw to local governance. It worked out nicely; Europeans should have taken note.
I can’t compare this book to others because I haven’t read any others on this topic cover to cover, but I wouldn’t let that stop you. If the Mongols are persuaded that Weatherford has done the work and done it well, who can argue? I learned a great deal and enjoyed it, and so I highly recommend it to you.
September 2, 2024
While I fashion myself a history nerd, I have to admit to knowing very little about Kublai Khan before picking up Emperor of the Seas by Jack Weatherford. In fact, if you asked me to spell it, I would have failed quite badly. Now I am educated!
Weatherford tells the story of Kublai's rise from a child to becoming, well, that is a bit complicated. First, there is a not a ton of documentation on the life of the Khan's on account of being nomadic and prone to taking over other societies. The other reason his title is complicated is that Kublai and various family members were very scattered and the question of who was truly the successor to the Great Khan was up for debate. Kublai was mainly based in China and carried with it a lot of uncertainty. Weatherford unpacks this all very well in easy to read prose and an eye for interesting detail (when it is available). Kublai would eventually create a navy with varying initial success which is unusual for a bunch of reasons that are better if Weatherford tells you.
I'd say the sole weakness of the book would be some extraneous information. A chapter on cuisine seems out of place, and there are too many chapters after Kublai's death which could have been cut or shortened. I still enjoyed the book immensely and learned quite a lot.
(This book was provided as an advance copy by Netgalley and Bloomsbury.)
Weatherford tells the story of Kublai's rise from a child to becoming, well, that is a bit complicated. First, there is a not a ton of documentation on the life of the Khan's on account of being nomadic and prone to taking over other societies. The other reason his title is complicated is that Kublai and various family members were very scattered and the question of who was truly the successor to the Great Khan was up for debate. Kublai was mainly based in China and carried with it a lot of uncertainty. Weatherford unpacks this all very well in easy to read prose and an eye for interesting detail (when it is available). Kublai would eventually create a navy with varying initial success which is unusual for a bunch of reasons that are better if Weatherford tells you.
I'd say the sole weakness of the book would be some extraneous information. A chapter on cuisine seems out of place, and there are too many chapters after Kublai's death which could have been cut or shortened. I still enjoyed the book immensely and learned quite a lot.
(This book was provided as an advance copy by Netgalley and Bloomsbury.)
November 12, 2025
Reseña: El emperador de los mares. Kublai Kan y la forja de China, de Jack Weatherford
Mientras sus parientes mongoles acumulaban victorias en los campos de batalla, Kublai Kan crecía en la sombra, observando y aprendiendo. Tenía sobrepeso, sufría de gota y era de carácter reservado: la antítesis del conquistador. Sin embargo, su aparente debilidad escondía una inteligencia política fuera de lo común. Comprendió que el futuro del imperio no estaba en las estepas, sino en China, y que el dominio del mundo no se conseguiría sólo con caballos y arcos, ni arrasando territorios, sino gobernando con leyes, administrando con justicia y comerciando con visión.
Para los mongoles, los ríos eran una barrera más infranqueable que cualquier muralla: sus caballos no podían cruzarlos y no poseían barcos con los que navegar. Kublai supo darle la vuelta a esa limitación. En poco tiempo, transformó aquella cultura de tierra adentro en una potencia marítima, creando una flota formidable y lanzando su imperio al océano. Fue el inicio de una nueva concepción del poder: ya no bastaba con conquistar, había que conectar.
Jack Weatherford traza en este libro el retrato de un hombre que, sin grandes gestas militares personales, acabó unificando China y transformándola en un imperio próspero. Bajo su mando, el país miró hacia el mar, el papel moneda revolucionó la economía y el comercio se convirtió en instrumento de civilización. Fue también el responsable de que la actual Beijing—entonces Dadu— se convirtiera en la capital del Imperio Yuan, estableciendo el centro político y cultural de China tal y como lo conocemos hoy.
Pero Kublai también sufrió en sus propias carnes los límites de la ambición imperial: las invasiones de Japón resultaron un desastre, y sus campañas en el Sudeste Asiático lo enfrentaron a una guerrilla vietnamita tan indómita y esquiva que siglos después haría morder el polvo a potencias modernas.
El autor narra todo esto con un pulso ágil y una prosa de divulgación elegante, más cercana a la novela histórica que al ensayo académico. Esa virtud narrativa, sin embargo, es también su límite: a veces la historia se presenta más como epopeya que como análisis. Weatherford tiende a idealizar a Kublai y no siempre se detiene en las contradicciones o fracasos de su reinado
Aun así, El emperador de los mares es una lectura apasionante: un viaje al corazón de una época en la que Oriente marcaba el ritmo del mundo. Nos recuerda que la verdadera conquista no siempre se libra con lanzas, sino con la capacidad de entender el poder de las aguas —y de las selvas— que otros temen cruzar, y de construir ciudades que sigan marcando el destino de los imperios siglos después
Mientras sus parientes mongoles acumulaban victorias en los campos de batalla, Kublai Kan crecía en la sombra, observando y aprendiendo. Tenía sobrepeso, sufría de gota y era de carácter reservado: la antítesis del conquistador. Sin embargo, su aparente debilidad escondía una inteligencia política fuera de lo común. Comprendió que el futuro del imperio no estaba en las estepas, sino en China, y que el dominio del mundo no se conseguiría sólo con caballos y arcos, ni arrasando territorios, sino gobernando con leyes, administrando con justicia y comerciando con visión.
Para los mongoles, los ríos eran una barrera más infranqueable que cualquier muralla: sus caballos no podían cruzarlos y no poseían barcos con los que navegar. Kublai supo darle la vuelta a esa limitación. En poco tiempo, transformó aquella cultura de tierra adentro en una potencia marítima, creando una flota formidable y lanzando su imperio al océano. Fue el inicio de una nueva concepción del poder: ya no bastaba con conquistar, había que conectar.
Jack Weatherford traza en este libro el retrato de un hombre que, sin grandes gestas militares personales, acabó unificando China y transformándola en un imperio próspero. Bajo su mando, el país miró hacia el mar, el papel moneda revolucionó la economía y el comercio se convirtió en instrumento de civilización. Fue también el responsable de que la actual Beijing—entonces Dadu— se convirtiera en la capital del Imperio Yuan, estableciendo el centro político y cultural de China tal y como lo conocemos hoy.
Pero Kublai también sufrió en sus propias carnes los límites de la ambición imperial: las invasiones de Japón resultaron un desastre, y sus campañas en el Sudeste Asiático lo enfrentaron a una guerrilla vietnamita tan indómita y esquiva que siglos después haría morder el polvo a potencias modernas.
El autor narra todo esto con un pulso ágil y una prosa de divulgación elegante, más cercana a la novela histórica que al ensayo académico. Esa virtud narrativa, sin embargo, es también su límite: a veces la historia se presenta más como epopeya que como análisis. Weatherford tiende a idealizar a Kublai y no siempre se detiene en las contradicciones o fracasos de su reinado
Aun así, El emperador de los mares es una lectura apasionante: un viaje al corazón de una época en la que Oriente marcaba el ritmo del mundo. Nos recuerda que la verdadera conquista no siempre se libra con lanzas, sino con la capacidad de entender el poder de las aguas —y de las selvas— que otros temen cruzar, y de construir ciudades que sigan marcando el destino de los imperios siglos después
June 2, 2025
Could not finish. This is a competent history, but Weatherford’s writing style repelled me more than the subject matter could attract me. Obviously this is a well-researched history, and draws on the best of modern scholarship on the Mongol Empire as well as the old Persian, Mongol, and Chinese sources, but the duty of a writer is to craft a good story before anything, and this Weatherford falls short of in some places. In particular, there are parts where he stops to philosophize; not that I’m opposed to historians introducing their own perspective into the narrative, but if all you have to say is “absolute power reveals absolutely”, can we just stick to the facts??
I appreciate Weatherford making a pop history book about the founding of the Yuan dynasty, an era of history criminally overlooked in the West, and I’m sure that he’ll continue to have success with books like this. Just wasn’t for me!
I appreciate Weatherford making a pop history book about the founding of the Yuan dynasty, an era of history criminally overlooked in the West, and I’m sure that he’ll continue to have success with books like this. Just wasn’t for me!
March 2, 2025
An insightful account of the rise of the Yuan dynasty and Kublai’s role in establishing the first maritime Silk Road to make China an economic behemoth.
I really enjoyed the analysis on Kublai’s character and his motivations in establishing a continuous peaceful pan European society where trade and freedom can flourish. An important economic and cultural time in the history of the world.
The collapse of the Yuan, was somewhat glossed over and reasoning lacking. Particularly the role of the failed invasions of Japan, Vietnam and Java feeling like a missed opportunity for an enticing and epic story of the overreach by a grandiloquent emperor.
Seeing how Europe owed much of its later supremacy to inheriting the maritime trading routes from the Mongols once the Ming retreated from the sea was illuminating.
History does reverberate and is omnipresent shaping our modern world. China coming back to the sea in the 21st century will have huge implications, it is important juxtaposing this with their past naval supremacy. An interesting read on the role of the Yuan dynasty and Kublai Khan in shaping the modern world.
I really enjoyed the analysis on Kublai’s character and his motivations in establishing a continuous peaceful pan European society where trade and freedom can flourish. An important economic and cultural time in the history of the world.
The collapse of the Yuan, was somewhat glossed over and reasoning lacking. Particularly the role of the failed invasions of Japan, Vietnam and Java feeling like a missed opportunity for an enticing and epic story of the overreach by a grandiloquent emperor.
Seeing how Europe owed much of its later supremacy to inheriting the maritime trading routes from the Mongols once the Ming retreated from the sea was illuminating.
History does reverberate and is omnipresent shaping our modern world. China coming back to the sea in the 21st century will have huge implications, it is important juxtaposing this with their past naval supremacy. An interesting read on the role of the Yuan dynasty and Kublai Khan in shaping the modern world.
May 18, 2025
I liked the book a lot. It certainly provided insight into China and its earlier history. But, I was disappointed in the maps. There were five little maps, but many of the places that are referred to in the text are not on any of the five maps. I was constantly referring to various maps to try to figure out where the place mentioned was and often could not find it on the maps included.
I appreciated that the author summed up the centuries after Kublai Khan’s death (which occurred in 1294 CE ) being included for it added much needed perspective. He touches briefly on China’s exposure to, and clash with Europe, which led to significant problems. Of course he briefly got into the opium wars. He gives an overview of the changing dynamics between the various emperors and dynasties in China. I was surprised to read about US trade agreements with China in the early stages of the formation of the United States. China was a great trading partner in our early days.
If you want a quick dive into Chinese history focused on the years of Kublai Khan this is a good book for that.
I appreciated that the author summed up the centuries after Kublai Khan’s death (which occurred in 1294 CE ) being included for it added much needed perspective. He touches briefly on China’s exposure to, and clash with Europe, which led to significant problems. Of course he briefly got into the opium wars. He gives an overview of the changing dynamics between the various emperors and dynasties in China. I was surprised to read about US trade agreements with China in the early stages of the formation of the United States. China was a great trading partner in our early days.
If you want a quick dive into Chinese history focused on the years of Kublai Khan this is a good book for that.
August 16, 2025
I think this book is brilliant for anyone who wants to read history but doesn't want to read the "Traditional" history books in their usual style. Until the half of this book I wasn't sure whether it was a history book because it read like a fairy tale.
I think the author is very much a fan of the history of this side of the world and also of Kublai Khan. Even though he mentions some flaws of Kublai, it generally has a positive spirit when talking about his period. Anyways, I wasn't aware of anything happening in this period and in general I have a little knowledge of the history of China which I will go into more in the future. It was so much fun to read.
I am of the opinion that the last 50 pages were fillers and can get cut out of the book and keep the focus the same. If this section was cut out then I would have given this book 10/10. But now it's 8.5/10.
Good stuff.
I think the author is very much a fan of the history of this side of the world and also of Kublai Khan. Even though he mentions some flaws of Kublai, it generally has a positive spirit when talking about his period. Anyways, I wasn't aware of anything happening in this period and in general I have a little knowledge of the history of China which I will go into more in the future. It was so much fun to read.
I am of the opinion that the last 50 pages were fillers and can get cut out of the book and keep the focus the same. If this section was cut out then I would have given this book 10/10. But now it's 8.5/10.
Good stuff.
December 15, 2025
"Las invasiones mongolas no han sido bien vistas ni en la historiografía ni en la literatura de aquellos países que las conocieron de forma directa. Un clásico como Perry Andersen consideraba incluso que tenían parte de culpa en el retraso de Europa oriental. Pero ¿qué pasó en China? Jack Weatherford, historiador, antropólogo nos ofrece en El emperador de los mares. Kublai Kan y la forja de China (Ático de los libros, 2025), una visión distinta centrada en el legado marítimo del Imperio mongol y cómo la hegemonía naval China cambió el mundo para siempre".
RESEÑA COMPLETA: https://atrapadaenunashojasdepapel.bl...
RESEÑA COMPLETA: https://atrapadaenunashojasdepapel.bl...
March 12, 2025
It's not as focused as Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, but Jack Weatherford is a wonderful writer who presents parts of history that are not very well-known. It was nice reading about Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty.
---
Sin darme cuenta éste se convirtió en mi libro leído #700. Buen libro para este hito. (11 marzo 2025)
---
Sin darme cuenta éste se convirtió en mi libro leído #700. Buen libro para este hito. (11 marzo 2025)
May 12, 2025
Emperor of the Seas is not only a history book, but it is told in a way that kept me turning for the next page. Usually history books take me a lot longer to read, but this book was an exception.
I’ve also been trying to work on learning more about ancient history, as well as geography, and so this book was the perfect culmination of that.
I’ve also been trying to work on learning more about ancient history, as well as geography, and so this book was the perfect culmination of that.
March 21, 2025
El autor logra con este libro demostrar que los dos primeros emperadores Yuan centraron su interés en el comercio y en el amor, algo que supuso un gran desafío para un pueblo centrado en las estepas. Este libro demuestra que los mongoles no eran un pueblo bárbaro, todo lo contrario, ayudaron al desarrollo de China y el comercio mundial. Se lee muy fácil el libro, las ideas son claras y precisas, fácilmente es la historia del ascenso de la dinastía Yuan en el mar. Recomendados.
El libro empieza con la conquista mongola de la dinastía Jin, en la que se destaca el aspecto aterrador de los mongoles y su gran habilidad con los caballos y el arco, el objetivo es Gengis Kan era tomar ciudades ricas, con la táctica de retirada fingida logró vencer a los Jins y conseguir que algunos khitans se le uniera. Los mongoles no eran expertos en asediar murallas por lo que se creó un cuerpo especializado para escalar estas estructuras. A partir de 1215 las conquistas darían paso a la ocupación mongola del norte de China. Mientras tanto en el sur, la dinastía song, vea con buenos ojos la eliminación de 1 de sus rivales, se sentían confiados por el obstáculo que suponía los, subas que los mongoles se centrarán más en su campaña con Asia Central Y China sería gobernada por los mismos locales bajo control mongol.
Los nietos de Gengis Kan, aparecen por primera vez siendo Kublai kan, del que se va a centrar este texto, este mongol estaba basado en el budismo, aprendió varios idiomas y conoció distintas religiones. El padre de Kublai, Tolui, era alguien mucho más despiadado que su hijo al punto de destruir la ciudad comercial de Merv, este también llevó a cabo campañas contra los Jin, en la década de 1230. Los mongoles siguieron expandiéndose por China aprovechando los climas fríos, también llegaron a conquistar en 1232 Corea, aunque, había problemas logísticos en cuanto a la expansión del Ejército mongol, con la muerte del padre de Kublai, la madre, es la que ostentaba más el poder, ella llevó a cabo una expedición marítima en el lago Baikal, en la que se buscaba plata siberiana.
El hermano de Kublai, Mongke, llevaría a cabo campañas en Rusia y Ucrania, mientras tanto empezaba a aprender a cómo gobernar China, para ello aprendió de la filosofía China, y su madre lo obligó a saber cómo administrar este territorio. Un erudito chino Liu, le enseñó a cómo gobernar este vasto imperio creando políticas y burocracia, pese a que seguía la expansión mongola todavía salía de sus manos la conquista del sur de China la cual era más rica a nivel agrícola, como se había mencionado la dinastía Song usaba su geografía a su favor, sumado que los mongoles no tenían ninguna experiencia en el agua, puesto que veían mal usar barcos ya que lo relacionaban con un carro que era propio de las mujeres.
Mongke, llevó a cabo varias purgas en la que al final le dejó a su hermano el dominio de Mongolia interior el 1253, este nuevo can siguió con las guerras en las que se centraría en conquistar Bagdad y el sur de China, por lo que cubre y tenía el objetivo de conquistar el territorio sureño chino, el Ejército enfrentaba corrupción, por lo que fue necesario llevar a cabo políticas contra éstas, y para conquistar China Kublai sabía que necesitaba más de habilidades políticas y de organización, ya que no contaba con mucha experiencia militar.
Las conquistas mongolas en las tierras musulmanas fueron rápidas, un hermano de Kublai, Hulegu, logró conquistar rápidamente Bagdad y las tierras cercanas creando el ilkanato, los mongoles se adentraron en el Levante, pero no mostraron interés en el mar Mediterráneo. La campaña China seguía estancada por la poca tradición marítima de los mongoles, estos últimos lograron una victoria derrotando al reino de Dalí, en 1256, en el que se usaron pieles de animales para flotar un pequeño avance para el dominio de las aguas. El primer objetivo que tenían los mongoles era rodear la dinastía Song por medio del norte de Vietnam, el problema es que no lograron conquistar este territorio debido a las complicaciones del terreno y al uso de elefantes vietnamitas, por lo que los mongoles huyeron apresuradamente de esta campaña, donde al final el emperador Dai Viet, dio tributo a los mongoles como una forma de victoria simbólica.
El intento mongol de conquistar Egipto también fracasó en 1260 ante la victoria de los mamelucos, un año antes Mongke había muerto, hasta ese momento Kublai no había tomado muchas decisiones importantes, se llevó a cabo la elección de un nuevo Khan Ariq Böke. Mientras ello ocurría, Kublai logró ese mismo año los primeros pasos en atravesar las orillas del río Yangtzé. En 1260 se llamó a un kurultai En China y no en Mongolia, donde se mostraba que este territorio contaba con grandes Recursos Humanos y físicos, en las que había un cambio respecto a la mentalidad mongola, como se vio en el apoyo de Kublai en la construcción de canales y apoyar comerciantes. Para el 1264, luego de la derrota del anterior Khan por parte de los hermanos mongoles, China sería ahora el lugar de los nómadas mongoles.
El sur de China era 1 de los lugares más ricos del mundo, el Ejército mongol debía adaptarse a las aguas del sur, Por su parte Kublai seguía centrado en la administración y en los intereses del norte de China, contrario a sus predecesores, no quería centrarse tanto en él saqueo, había que aprender del pasado. Los Jin, habían llevado a cabo la construcción de una armada para conquistar a los Song, el problema radica en que sus navegantes no tenían experiencia marítima por lo que al final fue un gran fracaso de esta armada y los mongoles aprendieron rápidamente estos errores. Lo Song, tenían una gran tradición en la construcción de barcos y puertos, tenían a su favor inventos como mapas estelares y brújulas, tenían la Armada más grande y avanzada del mundo con varias innovaciones importantes como las velas y adhesivos impermeables, construían clavos de hierro para mejorar el ensamblaje de barcos. Sus ciudades eran unas de las más grandes del mundo y tenían toda una industria en la construcción de barcos y en la creación de armas incendiarias. Su conocimiento lo usaron para comerciar ir a lugares tan lejanos como la India o el sudeste asiático, los chinos empezaron a usar las matemáticas para resolver problemas cotidianos, consumían limones para evitar el escorbuto y usaron las primeras vacunas contra la viruela, con todo lo anterior los mongoles debían innovar a este nivel sí querían conquistar a este gran imperio.
En 1264 se lleva a cabo una expedición marítima por Siberia a manos de los mongoles en los cuales se exploraron ríos y con ello empezó a centrar los mongoles su atención en los mares, también se llevaron a cabo pequeñas expediciones en islas cercanas de Japón, para llevar a cabo la construcción de una flota, Kublai sabía que necesitaba de los coreanos los cuales eran buenos constructores de barcos y se apoyaron de barcos Song capturados en 1266. Otro elemento importante para construir barcos era dinero, y los mongoles en China no lo tenían, o lo que fue necesaria la ayuda de un musulmán para mejorar las finanzas en este territorio, por lo que se da paso de un sistema feudal mongol a una administración China para recoger dinero, una gran innovación económica fue la introducción del papel moneda, o lo que vemos al primer Khan, centrado en aspectos financieros de su imperio, pese a la centralización de la economía se necesitaba más dinero si se quería invadir el sur de China.
El conocimiento de las costumbres chinas en el manejo de sus ríos era importante, mientras los mongoles aprendían de estas rutas fluviales, los Song ya no siguieron innovando más, los mongoles seguían aprendiendo sobre los ríos al sur de China y a crear explosivos incendiarios en el agua, usaron a los chinos para crear armas de asedio con el uso de cañones, se empezaron a reforestar muchos bosques chinos para construir una gran armada, se integró el conocimiento árabe para mejorar los mapas fluviales, con todo esto presente, se empezaron a hacer pequeñas escaramuzas para conocer mejor el territorio y con ello conseguir prisioneros que eran hábiles marineros. Los mongoles tenían a su favor una gran capacidad de comunicación, usaron barcos explosivos para atacar a las embarcaciones enemigas, aunque Kublai tenía intereses en Asia central, su fracaso en este territorio hizo que se volcara más hacia el sur de China.
En 1269 se escogió un nuevo Khan, Kaidu Khan, Kublai era muy criticado puesto que decían que se había vuelto más chino Alejandro si así de sus raíces estepares, por lo que en 1271 Kublai kan crea su nueva dinastía, Da Yuan, por lo que ahora se centraría en dominar China y no en las estepas. Llevó a cabo la construcción de una nueva capital en Beijing, y empezó a mejorar las vías fluviales y la obtención de alimentos para mejorar el suministro de comida, delegó muchos asuntos a chinos con amplia experiencia, aunque tampoco dejó de lado algunas prácticas nómadas como el traslado de su capital, creó un nuevo Palacio siguiendo los lineamientos chinos. En el ámbito de la guerra sabía que necesitaba poner muy buena artillería en los barcos, por lo que en 1272 trajo ingenieros musulmanes, los cuales pusieron grandes catapultas en los barcos, lo que ayudó a destruir varias fortalezas de los Song.
En 1274 Kublai, llevó a cabo una declaración total de guerra en la que él se veía como el legítimo heredero de la dinastía China, Mientras tanto hacia el sur, los Song, tenían un emperador que no era muy competente, su principal error fue subestimar mucho a los mongoles, y diferentes funcionarios no avisaron a su emperador de las derrotas que estaban teniendo a manos de los mongoles. Pese a lo anterior, los Song, seguían exportando sedas, especias y porcelana Japón a cambio de oro y caballos, pero principalmente conseguían de Japón azufre para sus armas de pólvora, ante este próspero comercio kublai sabía que necesitaba conquistar Japón, para evitar que siguieran mandando suministros al sur de China, hacia 1271 se extendió un rumor de una supuesta flota japonesa, que iba a invadir China, por lo que se llevaron a cabo preparativos para conquistar la isla nipona, un primer paso fue en 1273 conquistar una pequeña isla en Corea, el problema es que los barcos que se usaban en los océanos eran diferentes a los usados en los ríos, por lo que no había mucha experiencia, la construcción de estos barcos implicó mucho caos, los mongoles subestimaron la resistencia de Japón, los cuales aprovecharon la mala organización mongola para lograr resistir y así triunfar, eso no impidió que los mongoles siguieron teniendo una armada muy poderosa, los japoneses nunca bloquearon el comercio.
La dinastía Song, gastaba sus enormes riquezas en arte, literatura y restaurantes, rara vez usaban sus riquezas para defenderse de los mongoles, estos últimos también han empezado a interesarse por productos de Medio Oriente como el azúcar y el almíbar. Muchos intelectuales huyendo de los mongoles se dirigieron hacia el sur, mientras que comerciantes e ingenieros se dirigieron hacia el norte. En 1275 se llevó a cabo el gran desembarco mongol al otro lado del río, consiguiendo así una fortaleza, los mongoles cruzaron rápidamente al río y avanzaron hacia la capital de los Song, las personas de este último lugar no tenían mucho amor por defender a su emperatriz, al contrario tenían más miedo de lo que hicieran los mongoles, al final en 1276, la emperatriz se rindió y entregó la capital, dando fin a la dinastía Song de 319 años de antigüedad, Kublai trató con pasividad a los últimos emperadores Song, iniciando así el traslado de muchos elementos importantes hacia la nueva capital mongol.
Pese a la derrota de los Song todavía quedaba un hermano del emperador el cual había huido y había que erradicar, estos deambularon por medio de embarcaciones, un musulmán que contaba con una gran flota comercial ayudó a los mongoles, en ampliar, su dominio de los mares, ya que la dinastía yuan era más beneficiosa con los comerciantes musulmanes, lo que marcó el inicio del control de las rutas del Mar de China meridional, por lo que empezaron a ver comerciantes chinos en Persia, el emperador Song murió en un tifón pero 1 de sus hermanos había sobrevivido por lo que a final, en 1279 resistirían los últimos en la batalla de Yamen, donde finalmente moriría el último miembro de la dinastía Song. El gran logro de Kublai fue volver a unificar China incluyéndose nuevos territorios.
En las descripciones de Marco polo podemos encontrar los grandes lujos y la idealización de Occidente hacia China, no era para menos, Kublai empezó a mandar emisarios por todo El Mundo, para avisar de una nueva dinastía y que China estaba abierto para los negocios, los chinos empezaron a llevar hacia India plata y porcelana a cambio de especias y telas, el gran comercio chino llegó a tierras tan lejanas que van desde Corea hasta Turquía, se llevaron a cabo misiones exploratorias en los ríos. Pese al gran éxito comercial que estaba viviendo la nueva dinastía, el emperador llevó a cabo otro intento de invasión hacia Japón, esta vez la isla contaba con mejores defensas costeras, pero las exigencias de barcos por parte del emperador mongol eran exageradas y no se pudieron cumplir, la flota se dividió en dos y esto produjo una gran descoordinación, los samuráis pudieron combatir fácilmente a los mongoles, y un tifón destruyó muchos barcos que van a invadir Japón. La segunda expedición fue todo un fracaso y al contrario, los japoneses empezaron a atacar mucho más seguido a los barcos mongoles, otro problema de esta expedición fue que los barcos eran de muy mala calidad debido a las altas exigencias, las islas de Japón cercanas también resistieron al poder mongol.
Los mongoles querían unir a todo El Mundo bajo el comercio y no tanto desde la invasión, si usó el sur de China para alimentar el norte y exportar productos hacia el extranjero, los nuevos barcos de la dinastía yuan, cargaban 8 veces más comida que los anteriores, se llevó a cabo todo un florecimiento comercial en el que China se convirtió en el mayor importador de pimienta negra y otros productos, los diferentes bienes producidos en China llegaron a estar presentes en el oriente de África y Medio Oriente. La cerámica china empezó a exportarse en dos grandes gamas, en la que se respondía según las necesidades de los clientes como por ejemplo en la que los clientes musulmanes preferían cerámicas sin imágenes de animales o humanos. El autor es enfático en mencionar que China convirtió la cerámica en el primer producto producido en masa a escala internacional. Los puertos chinos atraían barcos de India que traían especias y piedras preciosas en las que se encontraban también mercaderes de todo tipo de religiones principalmente musulmanes, finalmente los chinos también exportaron su conocimiento por todo Asia y Europa, este nuevo comercio estaría más controlado por el estado el cual velaba por proteger el comercio en contra de los piratas.
China ahora se convirtió en un gran poder militar y nunca antes visto en su historia, el problema es que el Kublai quería seguir conquistando, el próximo objetivo era conquistar Vietnam para tener rutas más directas hacia India y el sudeste asiático, el objetivo sería conquistar el centro de Vietnam, ya que el norte se había mostrado como más difícil de conquistar, el viaje empezó en 1282 y los ejércitos que llegaron a Vietnam llegaron muy agotados, cuando estos ejércitos avanzaban hacia áreas urbanas no encontraban suministros, el terreno tropical no ayuda mucho a estos invasores, se llevó a cabo otra invasión desde el norte de Vietnam en 1285 con el objetivo de salvar la expedición que antes se había lanzado, el problema es que la comida era un obstáculo para los mongoles y los vietnamitas usaban la guerra de guerrillas contra las fuerzas invasoras. Los vietnamitas ganaron una vez más. Por otra parte, en Asia central las luchas entre las diferentes facciones mongolas hizo que la ruta de la seda no sea transitada por los mercaderes, centrándose más en rutas marítimas.
Las relaciones entre China y el Ilkanato, eran cordiales, hubo un pequeño lapso en que existieron políticas anti-mongolas, pero rápidamente se pasó a un gobierno más cercano a China. Se llevaron a cabo largos intentos de hacer una alianza mongola con los europeos para invadir el Egipto mameluco, esto no lleva a nada, los genoveses mostraron interés en comerciar directamente con el kanato, pero al final se centraría en sus relaciones comerciales con la bordadora. Otra buena relación de la dinastía yuan era con la India y Sri Lanka.
Un capítulo menciona el viaje que hizo marco polo con una princesa mongola para casarla con un príncipe del ilkanato, estos barcos contaban con mapas, cartas y brújulas, los navegantes sabían muy bien posicionarse según las estrellas, en este trayecto pasaron por Java y Sumatra las cuales era reinos con un rico poder comercial. Para 1292 los mongoles intentaron conquistar la isla de Java, pero luego de llegar allí y luego de estar en una guerra civil, nunca pudieron conquistar Java, la cual al final nunca representó una amenaza seria para el dominio chino. Algo interesante en el canasto es que también intentó usar el papel moneda en China, pero esta medida fracasó, se empezó por una época de intenso comercio y de cese de invasiones constantes, el comercio ahora sería entre el Golfo Pérsico, el océano Índico y el Mar de China meridional, en el que China exportaba e importaba productos de varios lugares.
El Gobierno de Kuwait durante todo su mandato fue muy confuso, no pudo imponer sus códigos legales, pero sí logró una vigilancia constante de las aguas y convirtió a China en una potencia la naval, la cual pudo conectar por vía marítima este territorio con Persia, todo esto fue el legado de kublai que murió en 1294.
Con la muerte del emperador, se iniciaría la lucha de sucesión por el poder, el ganador final sería Temur, este nuevo emperador continuaría la política y administración de su abuelo. Mientras eso ocurría un nuevo gobernante en el ilkanato, Ghazan, marcaría el inicio de un Renacimiento persa, en el que este territorio se convertiría más al islam sunita. En China, el emperador estaba llevando a cabo reformas específicas luego el gran gasto que supusieron las guerras de su abuelo, se volvió a reconocer la importancia de Confucio, se luchó contra la corrupción y se mejoró la gobernanza, pero no sé logró superar el caos que supusieron los años de Gobierno de Kublai. El nuevo emperador logró la paz con sus primos mongoles, los barcos de la dinastía yuan estarían centrados en la diplomacia y el comercio, ahora más que nunca se impulsaba el comercio y productos chinos.
El comercio se usó para mejorar los ingresos chinos, por lo que era común encontrar barcos chinos por África oriental y el Golfo Pérsico, las embarcaciones contaban con la protección de la Armada, estos barcos eran los más grandes de la época, China no sólo exportaba cerámica y seda, sino que se dedicó a exportar plata, su comercio se reactivó con la India, Japón y el sudeste asiático. El comercio chino, ya venía de la dinastía Tang y Song, pero serían los yuan, los que llevarían el comercio a otro nivel, los campesinos producían productos especiales para la exportación como el té, especias y tintes. Los comerciantes musulmanes eran los que más se podían encontrar en los puertos al sur de China, en estos lugares se podían encontrar vendedores ambulantes vendiendo porcelana o objetos que habían pertenecido a la dinastía Song. La dinastía yuan alentó la escritura científica y tecnológica, se publicaron más libros, las producciones teatrales aumentaron en su calidad.
El libro empieza con la conquista mongola de la dinastía Jin, en la que se destaca el aspecto aterrador de los mongoles y su gran habilidad con los caballos y el arco, el objetivo es Gengis Kan era tomar ciudades ricas, con la táctica de retirada fingida logró vencer a los Jins y conseguir que algunos khitans se le uniera. Los mongoles no eran expertos en asediar murallas por lo que se creó un cuerpo especializado para escalar estas estructuras. A partir de 1215 las conquistas darían paso a la ocupación mongola del norte de China. Mientras tanto en el sur, la dinastía song, vea con buenos ojos la eliminación de 1 de sus rivales, se sentían confiados por el obstáculo que suponía los, subas que los mongoles se centrarán más en su campaña con Asia Central Y China sería gobernada por los mismos locales bajo control mongol.
Los nietos de Gengis Kan, aparecen por primera vez siendo Kublai kan, del que se va a centrar este texto, este mongol estaba basado en el budismo, aprendió varios idiomas y conoció distintas religiones. El padre de Kublai, Tolui, era alguien mucho más despiadado que su hijo al punto de destruir la ciudad comercial de Merv, este también llevó a cabo campañas contra los Jin, en la década de 1230. Los mongoles siguieron expandiéndose por China aprovechando los climas fríos, también llegaron a conquistar en 1232 Corea, aunque, había problemas logísticos en cuanto a la expansión del Ejército mongol, con la muerte del padre de Kublai, la madre, es la que ostentaba más el poder, ella llevó a cabo una expedición marítima en el lago Baikal, en la que se buscaba plata siberiana.
El hermano de Kublai, Mongke, llevaría a cabo campañas en Rusia y Ucrania, mientras tanto empezaba a aprender a cómo gobernar China, para ello aprendió de la filosofía China, y su madre lo obligó a saber cómo administrar este territorio. Un erudito chino Liu, le enseñó a cómo gobernar este vasto imperio creando políticas y burocracia, pese a que seguía la expansión mongola todavía salía de sus manos la conquista del sur de China la cual era más rica a nivel agrícola, como se había mencionado la dinastía Song usaba su geografía a su favor, sumado que los mongoles no tenían ninguna experiencia en el agua, puesto que veían mal usar barcos ya que lo relacionaban con un carro que era propio de las mujeres.
Mongke, llevó a cabo varias purgas en la que al final le dejó a su hermano el dominio de Mongolia interior el 1253, este nuevo can siguió con las guerras en las que se centraría en conquistar Bagdad y el sur de China, por lo que cubre y tenía el objetivo de conquistar el territorio sureño chino, el Ejército enfrentaba corrupción, por lo que fue necesario llevar a cabo políticas contra éstas, y para conquistar China Kublai sabía que necesitaba más de habilidades políticas y de organización, ya que no contaba con mucha experiencia militar.
Las conquistas mongolas en las tierras musulmanas fueron rápidas, un hermano de Kublai, Hulegu, logró conquistar rápidamente Bagdad y las tierras cercanas creando el ilkanato, los mongoles se adentraron en el Levante, pero no mostraron interés en el mar Mediterráneo. La campaña China seguía estancada por la poca tradición marítima de los mongoles, estos últimos lograron una victoria derrotando al reino de Dalí, en 1256, en el que se usaron pieles de animales para flotar un pequeño avance para el dominio de las aguas. El primer objetivo que tenían los mongoles era rodear la dinastía Song por medio del norte de Vietnam, el problema es que no lograron conquistar este territorio debido a las complicaciones del terreno y al uso de elefantes vietnamitas, por lo que los mongoles huyeron apresuradamente de esta campaña, donde al final el emperador Dai Viet, dio tributo a los mongoles como una forma de victoria simbólica.
El intento mongol de conquistar Egipto también fracasó en 1260 ante la victoria de los mamelucos, un año antes Mongke había muerto, hasta ese momento Kublai no había tomado muchas decisiones importantes, se llevó a cabo la elección de un nuevo Khan Ariq Böke. Mientras ello ocurría, Kublai logró ese mismo año los primeros pasos en atravesar las orillas del río Yangtzé. En 1260 se llamó a un kurultai En China y no en Mongolia, donde se mostraba que este territorio contaba con grandes Recursos Humanos y físicos, en las que había un cambio respecto a la mentalidad mongola, como se vio en el apoyo de Kublai en la construcción de canales y apoyar comerciantes. Para el 1264, luego de la derrota del anterior Khan por parte de los hermanos mongoles, China sería ahora el lugar de los nómadas mongoles.
El sur de China era 1 de los lugares más ricos del mundo, el Ejército mongol debía adaptarse a las aguas del sur, Por su parte Kublai seguía centrado en la administración y en los intereses del norte de China, contrario a sus predecesores, no quería centrarse tanto en él saqueo, había que aprender del pasado. Los Jin, habían llevado a cabo la construcción de una armada para conquistar a los Song, el problema radica en que sus navegantes no tenían experiencia marítima por lo que al final fue un gran fracaso de esta armada y los mongoles aprendieron rápidamente estos errores. Lo Song, tenían una gran tradición en la construcción de barcos y puertos, tenían a su favor inventos como mapas estelares y brújulas, tenían la Armada más grande y avanzada del mundo con varias innovaciones importantes como las velas y adhesivos impermeables, construían clavos de hierro para mejorar el ensamblaje de barcos. Sus ciudades eran unas de las más grandes del mundo y tenían toda una industria en la construcción de barcos y en la creación de armas incendiarias. Su conocimiento lo usaron para comerciar ir a lugares tan lejanos como la India o el sudeste asiático, los chinos empezaron a usar las matemáticas para resolver problemas cotidianos, consumían limones para evitar el escorbuto y usaron las primeras vacunas contra la viruela, con todo lo anterior los mongoles debían innovar a este nivel sí querían conquistar a este gran imperio.
En 1264 se lleva a cabo una expedición marítima por Siberia a manos de los mongoles en los cuales se exploraron ríos y con ello empezó a centrar los mongoles su atención en los mares, también se llevaron a cabo pequeñas expediciones en islas cercanas de Japón, para llevar a cabo la construcción de una flota, Kublai sabía que necesitaba de los coreanos los cuales eran buenos constructores de barcos y se apoyaron de barcos Song capturados en 1266. Otro elemento importante para construir barcos era dinero, y los mongoles en China no lo tenían, o lo que fue necesaria la ayuda de un musulmán para mejorar las finanzas en este territorio, por lo que se da paso de un sistema feudal mongol a una administración China para recoger dinero, una gran innovación económica fue la introducción del papel moneda, o lo que vemos al primer Khan, centrado en aspectos financieros de su imperio, pese a la centralización de la economía se necesitaba más dinero si se quería invadir el sur de China.
El conocimiento de las costumbres chinas en el manejo de sus ríos era importante, mientras los mongoles aprendían de estas rutas fluviales, los Song ya no siguieron innovando más, los mongoles seguían aprendiendo sobre los ríos al sur de China y a crear explosivos incendiarios en el agua, usaron a los chinos para crear armas de asedio con el uso de cañones, se empezaron a reforestar muchos bosques chinos para construir una gran armada, se integró el conocimiento árabe para mejorar los mapas fluviales, con todo esto presente, se empezaron a hacer pequeñas escaramuzas para conocer mejor el territorio y con ello conseguir prisioneros que eran hábiles marineros. Los mongoles tenían a su favor una gran capacidad de comunicación, usaron barcos explosivos para atacar a las embarcaciones enemigas, aunque Kublai tenía intereses en Asia central, su fracaso en este territorio hizo que se volcara más hacia el sur de China.
En 1269 se escogió un nuevo Khan, Kaidu Khan, Kublai era muy criticado puesto que decían que se había vuelto más chino Alejandro si así de sus raíces estepares, por lo que en 1271 Kublai kan crea su nueva dinastía, Da Yuan, por lo que ahora se centraría en dominar China y no en las estepas. Llevó a cabo la construcción de una nueva capital en Beijing, y empezó a mejorar las vías fluviales y la obtención de alimentos para mejorar el suministro de comida, delegó muchos asuntos a chinos con amplia experiencia, aunque tampoco dejó de lado algunas prácticas nómadas como el traslado de su capital, creó un nuevo Palacio siguiendo los lineamientos chinos. En el ámbito de la guerra sabía que necesitaba poner muy buena artillería en los barcos, por lo que en 1272 trajo ingenieros musulmanes, los cuales pusieron grandes catapultas en los barcos, lo que ayudó a destruir varias fortalezas de los Song.
En 1274 Kublai, llevó a cabo una declaración total de guerra en la que él se veía como el legítimo heredero de la dinastía China, Mientras tanto hacia el sur, los Song, tenían un emperador que no era muy competente, su principal error fue subestimar mucho a los mongoles, y diferentes funcionarios no avisaron a su emperador de las derrotas que estaban teniendo a manos de los mongoles. Pese a lo anterior, los Song, seguían exportando sedas, especias y porcelana Japón a cambio de oro y caballos, pero principalmente conseguían de Japón azufre para sus armas de pólvora, ante este próspero comercio kublai sabía que necesitaba conquistar Japón, para evitar que siguieran mandando suministros al sur de China, hacia 1271 se extendió un rumor de una supuesta flota japonesa, que iba a invadir China, por lo que se llevaron a cabo preparativos para conquistar la isla nipona, un primer paso fue en 1273 conquistar una pequeña isla en Corea, el problema es que los barcos que se usaban en los océanos eran diferentes a los usados en los ríos, por lo que no había mucha experiencia, la construcción de estos barcos implicó mucho caos, los mongoles subestimaron la resistencia de Japón, los cuales aprovecharon la mala organización mongola para lograr resistir y así triunfar, eso no impidió que los mongoles siguieron teniendo una armada muy poderosa, los japoneses nunca bloquearon el comercio.
La dinastía Song, gastaba sus enormes riquezas en arte, literatura y restaurantes, rara vez usaban sus riquezas para defenderse de los mongoles, estos últimos también han empezado a interesarse por productos de Medio Oriente como el azúcar y el almíbar. Muchos intelectuales huyendo de los mongoles se dirigieron hacia el sur, mientras que comerciantes e ingenieros se dirigieron hacia el norte. En 1275 se llevó a cabo el gran desembarco mongol al otro lado del río, consiguiendo así una fortaleza, los mongoles cruzaron rápidamente al río y avanzaron hacia la capital de los Song, las personas de este último lugar no tenían mucho amor por defender a su emperatriz, al contrario tenían más miedo de lo que hicieran los mongoles, al final en 1276, la emperatriz se rindió y entregó la capital, dando fin a la dinastía Song de 319 años de antigüedad, Kublai trató con pasividad a los últimos emperadores Song, iniciando así el traslado de muchos elementos importantes hacia la nueva capital mongol.
Pese a la derrota de los Song todavía quedaba un hermano del emperador el cual había huido y había que erradicar, estos deambularon por medio de embarcaciones, un musulmán que contaba con una gran flota comercial ayudó a los mongoles, en ampliar, su dominio de los mares, ya que la dinastía yuan era más beneficiosa con los comerciantes musulmanes, lo que marcó el inicio del control de las rutas del Mar de China meridional, por lo que empezaron a ver comerciantes chinos en Persia, el emperador Song murió en un tifón pero 1 de sus hermanos había sobrevivido por lo que a final, en 1279 resistirían los últimos en la batalla de Yamen, donde finalmente moriría el último miembro de la dinastía Song. El gran logro de Kublai fue volver a unificar China incluyéndose nuevos territorios.
En las descripciones de Marco polo podemos encontrar los grandes lujos y la idealización de Occidente hacia China, no era para menos, Kublai empezó a mandar emisarios por todo El Mundo, para avisar de una nueva dinastía y que China estaba abierto para los negocios, los chinos empezaron a llevar hacia India plata y porcelana a cambio de especias y telas, el gran comercio chino llegó a tierras tan lejanas que van desde Corea hasta Turquía, se llevaron a cabo misiones exploratorias en los ríos. Pese al gran éxito comercial que estaba viviendo la nueva dinastía, el emperador llevó a cabo otro intento de invasión hacia Japón, esta vez la isla contaba con mejores defensas costeras, pero las exigencias de barcos por parte del emperador mongol eran exageradas y no se pudieron cumplir, la flota se dividió en dos y esto produjo una gran descoordinación, los samuráis pudieron combatir fácilmente a los mongoles, y un tifón destruyó muchos barcos que van a invadir Japón. La segunda expedición fue todo un fracaso y al contrario, los japoneses empezaron a atacar mucho más seguido a los barcos mongoles, otro problema de esta expedición fue que los barcos eran de muy mala calidad debido a las altas exigencias, las islas de Japón cercanas también resistieron al poder mongol.
Los mongoles querían unir a todo El Mundo bajo el comercio y no tanto desde la invasión, si usó el sur de China para alimentar el norte y exportar productos hacia el extranjero, los nuevos barcos de la dinastía yuan, cargaban 8 veces más comida que los anteriores, se llevó a cabo todo un florecimiento comercial en el que China se convirtió en el mayor importador de pimienta negra y otros productos, los diferentes bienes producidos en China llegaron a estar presentes en el oriente de África y Medio Oriente. La cerámica china empezó a exportarse en dos grandes gamas, en la que se respondía según las necesidades de los clientes como por ejemplo en la que los clientes musulmanes preferían cerámicas sin imágenes de animales o humanos. El autor es enfático en mencionar que China convirtió la cerámica en el primer producto producido en masa a escala internacional. Los puertos chinos atraían barcos de India que traían especias y piedras preciosas en las que se encontraban también mercaderes de todo tipo de religiones principalmente musulmanes, finalmente los chinos también exportaron su conocimiento por todo Asia y Europa, este nuevo comercio estaría más controlado por el estado el cual velaba por proteger el comercio en contra de los piratas.
China ahora se convirtió en un gran poder militar y nunca antes visto en su historia, el problema es que el Kublai quería seguir conquistando, el próximo objetivo era conquistar Vietnam para tener rutas más directas hacia India y el sudeste asiático, el objetivo sería conquistar el centro de Vietnam, ya que el norte se había mostrado como más difícil de conquistar, el viaje empezó en 1282 y los ejércitos que llegaron a Vietnam llegaron muy agotados, cuando estos ejércitos avanzaban hacia áreas urbanas no encontraban suministros, el terreno tropical no ayuda mucho a estos invasores, se llevó a cabo otra invasión desde el norte de Vietnam en 1285 con el objetivo de salvar la expedición que antes se había lanzado, el problema es que la comida era un obstáculo para los mongoles y los vietnamitas usaban la guerra de guerrillas contra las fuerzas invasoras. Los vietnamitas ganaron una vez más. Por otra parte, en Asia central las luchas entre las diferentes facciones mongolas hizo que la ruta de la seda no sea transitada por los mercaderes, centrándose más en rutas marítimas.
Las relaciones entre China y el Ilkanato, eran cordiales, hubo un pequeño lapso en que existieron políticas anti-mongolas, pero rápidamente se pasó a un gobierno más cercano a China. Se llevaron a cabo largos intentos de hacer una alianza mongola con los europeos para invadir el Egipto mameluco, esto no lleva a nada, los genoveses mostraron interés en comerciar directamente con el kanato, pero al final se centraría en sus relaciones comerciales con la bordadora. Otra buena relación de la dinastía yuan era con la India y Sri Lanka.
Un capítulo menciona el viaje que hizo marco polo con una princesa mongola para casarla con un príncipe del ilkanato, estos barcos contaban con mapas, cartas y brújulas, los navegantes sabían muy bien posicionarse según las estrellas, en este trayecto pasaron por Java y Sumatra las cuales era reinos con un rico poder comercial. Para 1292 los mongoles intentaron conquistar la isla de Java, pero luego de llegar allí y luego de estar en una guerra civil, nunca pudieron conquistar Java, la cual al final nunca representó una amenaza seria para el dominio chino. Algo interesante en el canasto es que también intentó usar el papel moneda en China, pero esta medida fracasó, se empezó por una época de intenso comercio y de cese de invasiones constantes, el comercio ahora sería entre el Golfo Pérsico, el océano Índico y el Mar de China meridional, en el que China exportaba e importaba productos de varios lugares.
El Gobierno de Kuwait durante todo su mandato fue muy confuso, no pudo imponer sus códigos legales, pero sí logró una vigilancia constante de las aguas y convirtió a China en una potencia la naval, la cual pudo conectar por vía marítima este territorio con Persia, todo esto fue el legado de kublai que murió en 1294.
Con la muerte del emperador, se iniciaría la lucha de sucesión por el poder, el ganador final sería Temur, este nuevo emperador continuaría la política y administración de su abuelo. Mientras eso ocurría un nuevo gobernante en el ilkanato, Ghazan, marcaría el inicio de un Renacimiento persa, en el que este territorio se convertiría más al islam sunita. En China, el emperador estaba llevando a cabo reformas específicas luego el gran gasto que supusieron las guerras de su abuelo, se volvió a reconocer la importancia de Confucio, se luchó contra la corrupción y se mejoró la gobernanza, pero no sé logró superar el caos que supusieron los años de Gobierno de Kublai. El nuevo emperador logró la paz con sus primos mongoles, los barcos de la dinastía yuan estarían centrados en la diplomacia y el comercio, ahora más que nunca se impulsaba el comercio y productos chinos.
El comercio se usó para mejorar los ingresos chinos, por lo que era común encontrar barcos chinos por África oriental y el Golfo Pérsico, las embarcaciones contaban con la protección de la Armada, estos barcos eran los más grandes de la época, China no sólo exportaba cerámica y seda, sino que se dedicó a exportar plata, su comercio se reactivó con la India, Japón y el sudeste asiático. El comercio chino, ya venía de la dinastía Tang y Song, pero serían los yuan, los que llevarían el comercio a otro nivel, los campesinos producían productos especiales para la exportación como el té, especias y tintes. Los comerciantes musulmanes eran los que más se podían encontrar en los puertos al sur de China, en estos lugares se podían encontrar vendedores ambulantes vendiendo porcelana o objetos que habían pertenecido a la dinastía Song. La dinastía yuan alentó la escritura científica y tecnológica, se publicaron más libros, las producciones teatrales aumentaron en su calidad.
May 3, 2025
EDIT: in retrospect, I’m increasing my rating. This book ended up taking me down a huge rabbit hole of history—I see echoes and effects of the Mongol conquest and empire in nearly every book taking place in the middle and far East, including in contemporary nonfiction.
An interesting anthropologically-minded book for those unfamiliar with the Mongols or Chinese history. It’s meandering, which I mean (unusually) as a compliment. Weatherford occasionally interrupts his narrative with asides and tangents varying from a few sentences to chapters of cultural and contextual information and concepts.
There’s a wonderful section, for example, describing how German miners were imported to China to mine cobalt and other new pigments, which combined with new specialization and manufacturing processes, created the blue and white porcelain “China” with which we are familiar today.
The narrative effectively makes the case that the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty’s real impact and value derives from trade and intercultural harmony, rather than war.
The eurocentrism of later Western Europeans as they “discover” Asia in comparatively tiny ships becomes readily apparent. They believe themselves to be civilizing forces, but arrive with useless trading items, compared to Chinese traders from several hundred years earlier. The main strength of Europeans comes from weapons and the ability to conquer. The common conception of the Mongols as the ones who were a violent horde, killing and looting their way Westward, is turned on its head.
The book probably should have stopped there, and the author probably overstated his case a little, but I’ll give Weatherford a break here.
I will say that this book could have used a good proofreader. I have never seen as many minor errors in a prestige hardcover.
If you work for Bloomsbury, please take a look at p 280 for example: “…religious harmony did managed to survive as did an intinerary of his final voyage.” Two errors like this in one sentence is pretty egregious.
On the last page, a more significant omission: “…marked the climax of a that was followed by centuries…” A WHAT
Hopefully this will be corrected in future editions.
An interesting anthropologically-minded book for those unfamiliar with the Mongols or Chinese history. It’s meandering, which I mean (unusually) as a compliment. Weatherford occasionally interrupts his narrative with asides and tangents varying from a few sentences to chapters of cultural and contextual information and concepts.
There’s a wonderful section, for example, describing how German miners were imported to China to mine cobalt and other new pigments, which combined with new specialization and manufacturing processes, created the blue and white porcelain “China” with which we are familiar today.
The narrative effectively makes the case that the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty’s real impact and value derives from trade and intercultural harmony, rather than war.
The eurocentrism of later Western Europeans as they “discover” Asia in comparatively tiny ships becomes readily apparent. They believe themselves to be civilizing forces, but arrive with useless trading items, compared to Chinese traders from several hundred years earlier. The main strength of Europeans comes from weapons and the ability to conquer. The common conception of the Mongols as the ones who were a violent horde, killing and looting their way Westward, is turned on its head.
The book probably should have stopped there, and the author probably overstated his case a little, but I’ll give Weatherford a break here.
I will say that this book could have used a good proofreader. I have never seen as many minor errors in a prestige hardcover.
If you work for Bloomsbury, please take a look at p 280 for example: “…religious harmony did managed to survive as did an intinerary of his final voyage.” Two errors like this in one sentence is pretty egregious.
On the last page, a more significant omission: “…marked the climax of a that was followed by centuries…” A WHAT
Hopefully this will be corrected in future editions.
July 14, 2025
This book, written in a popular historical narrative style, centers on Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan and the first Mongol emperor to fully unify and rule China in the 13th century. In his own time, Kublai was not well known in the West, and it was only through Marco Polo’s later writings that Europeans became broadly aware of his empire and court. For centuries, Kublai remained a distant, almost mythical figure in Western imagination, resurfacing more fully in modern times through travel literature and historical research.
The book offers several fascinating insights. Surprisingly, Kublai was not a natural military leader. Unlike his brothers and cousins, who were fierce warriors, he had a more diplomatic and pragmatic personality. He wasn’t initially driven by ambition either. It was his capable and politically astute wife, Chabi, who played a key role in shaping his rise to power.
One key episode the book highlights is Kublai’s campaign against the Southern Song dynasty. To push into South China, he had to take Wuhan. His military used advanced siege tactics, including ship-mounted trebuchets, giant throwing machines engineered by Muslim specialists from the Ilkhanate in Persia. Yet rather than a decisive conquest, the Song eventually surrendered due to internal collapse and dynastic struggles. This surrender may have come with an implicit understanding that Kublai’s forces would avoid widespread violence.
Even though he preferred administration over warfare, Kublai held firm to his grandfather Genghis Khan’s belief that the Mongols were destined to dominate the world. Driven by that vision, he launched multiple military expeditions against neighboring regions such as Japan, northern Vietnam, and Java, though most of these campaigns failed or ended inconclusively.
Ironically, it was his grandson, Emperor Temür, who gained wider symbolic recognition as Great Khan across the Mongol world. Instead, Temür focused on peace, stability, and the expansion of maritime trade, continuing to develop the massive fleet inherited from the Song dynasty. This open-seas policy endured for over a century, until the Ming dynasty closed China’s ports to foreign trade in the 1440s.
The book doesn’t deeply explore the reasons for this sudden turn toward isolation, except to note that Ming elites believed China was self-sufficient and needed little from abroad. However, one important factor is often overlooked: throughout the Ming period, Mongol invasions remained a real threat. In one major incident during the 15th century, the Mongols even captured the emperor himself. Unlike the Yuan dynasty, which had pacified the north and could look southward and seaward, the Ming were forced into a traditional defensive stance constantly guarding the northern frontier. That threat wasn’t fully eliminated until the late 17th century, when the Manchu-led Qing dynasty finally defeated the Dzungar Mongols, putting an end to 2,000 years of northern steppe incursions.
The book ends with some revealing and somewhat humorous reflections from Portuguese sailors in the early 1500s, describing their first impressions of China: “They are white people like us. They dress like Germans, with all their fashions—fur-lined caps and jerkins.” Another letter from the same period called them “people of our quality.” Even Benjamin Franklin, writing in 1786, remarked that “The Chinese are an enlightened people, the most anciently civilized of any existing.” In many ways, China’s emergence in the 21st century mirrors Kublai Khan’s vision of China as a global, self-assured power at the heart of a vast commercial and political order.
As an interesting historical footnote, in 1578, a Tibetan monk declared Altan Khan, a Mongol descendant of Kublai, to be Kublai’s reincarnation. In return, Altan Khan honored the monk as the rebirth of one of Kublai’s court lamas and modified an ancient Mongol imperial title, Dalai Khan, into Dalai Lama, meaning "Ocean of Wisdom." He bestowed this title upon the monk, and it has since endured as the name of the spiritual head of the Yellow Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism. In this way, the Mongol imperial legacy lived on in an unexpected spiritual form.
The book offers several fascinating insights. Surprisingly, Kublai was not a natural military leader. Unlike his brothers and cousins, who were fierce warriors, he had a more diplomatic and pragmatic personality. He wasn’t initially driven by ambition either. It was his capable and politically astute wife, Chabi, who played a key role in shaping his rise to power.
One key episode the book highlights is Kublai’s campaign against the Southern Song dynasty. To push into South China, he had to take Wuhan. His military used advanced siege tactics, including ship-mounted trebuchets, giant throwing machines engineered by Muslim specialists from the Ilkhanate in Persia. Yet rather than a decisive conquest, the Song eventually surrendered due to internal collapse and dynastic struggles. This surrender may have come with an implicit understanding that Kublai’s forces would avoid widespread violence.
Even though he preferred administration over warfare, Kublai held firm to his grandfather Genghis Khan’s belief that the Mongols were destined to dominate the world. Driven by that vision, he launched multiple military expeditions against neighboring regions such as Japan, northern Vietnam, and Java, though most of these campaigns failed or ended inconclusively.
Ironically, it was his grandson, Emperor Temür, who gained wider symbolic recognition as Great Khan across the Mongol world. Instead, Temür focused on peace, stability, and the expansion of maritime trade, continuing to develop the massive fleet inherited from the Song dynasty. This open-seas policy endured for over a century, until the Ming dynasty closed China’s ports to foreign trade in the 1440s.
The book doesn’t deeply explore the reasons for this sudden turn toward isolation, except to note that Ming elites believed China was self-sufficient and needed little from abroad. However, one important factor is often overlooked: throughout the Ming period, Mongol invasions remained a real threat. In one major incident during the 15th century, the Mongols even captured the emperor himself. Unlike the Yuan dynasty, which had pacified the north and could look southward and seaward, the Ming were forced into a traditional defensive stance constantly guarding the northern frontier. That threat wasn’t fully eliminated until the late 17th century, when the Manchu-led Qing dynasty finally defeated the Dzungar Mongols, putting an end to 2,000 years of northern steppe incursions.
The book ends with some revealing and somewhat humorous reflections from Portuguese sailors in the early 1500s, describing their first impressions of China: “They are white people like us. They dress like Germans, with all their fashions—fur-lined caps and jerkins.” Another letter from the same period called them “people of our quality.” Even Benjamin Franklin, writing in 1786, remarked that “The Chinese are an enlightened people, the most anciently civilized of any existing.” In many ways, China’s emergence in the 21st century mirrors Kublai Khan’s vision of China as a global, self-assured power at the heart of a vast commercial and political order.
As an interesting historical footnote, in 1578, a Tibetan monk declared Altan Khan, a Mongol descendant of Kublai, to be Kublai’s reincarnation. In return, Altan Khan honored the monk as the rebirth of one of Kublai’s court lamas and modified an ancient Mongol imperial title, Dalai Khan, into Dalai Lama, meaning "Ocean of Wisdom." He bestowed this title upon the monk, and it has since endured as the name of the spiritual head of the Yellow Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism. In this way, the Mongol imperial legacy lived on in an unexpected spiritual form.
September 20, 2024
My thanks to NetGalley and the publisher Bloomsbury USA for an advance copy of a history book that looks at Mongol war tactics that has not been discussed much in book form, the rise of naval power, and how it changed Mongol culture and history.
My high school spent little time in discussing the Mongol invasions of Europe and Asia, even though I remember a class on Western Civilization that should have mentioned it at least slightly. The textbooks for the class were written in the Reagan era, so being so close to the Vietnam war, maybe Texas didn't want textbooks detailing Europe's near conquest from the East. I gave up wondering about my education in high school, though I do wonder if much of what I did not learn explains the world of today. My knowledge of Kublai Khan came more from the awesome, at least in my opinion, song by the progressive Canadian band Rush, "Xanadu" and the equally mesmerizing and ethereal poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kubla Khan, or A Vision in a Dream. Later as I read more history I learned about the Mongols, their armies, their ways of ruling, and even more about Kublai Khan. However I don't remember learning about the rise of the Mongols on the ocean, what this meant and how it changed Mongol history. Emperor of the Seas: Kublai Khan and the Making of China by educator and scholar Jack Weatherford tells of Kublai Khan, his rise to power, his interest in things far beyond empire building and how he came to see the sea as something more than a barrier, or annoyance, but as a power to be controlled.
The book begins with a history of the time, and how the Mongol empire gained and held their power. Readers learn of the battles behind the scenes for power, the poisonings, the accident that moved people in power, and the fact that women had a surprising say, and a lot of power in the courts. Kublai Kahn was the grandson of the Genghis Khan, and took much after his mother in looks and attitudes. Kublai was more of person who liked knowledge, meeting with people and learning things, rather than cross the steppes on horseback. Or even to fight the many, many wars the Mongols were in the middle of. Kublai liked to use his gout as an excuse for not leading his armies, and after a few embarrassment was assigned an older war leader and his son to actually command the armies the Kublai was given. This gave Kublai a chance to do what he did best, observe, learn, and make deals when possible. It was in battles with the armies of Vietnam that Kublai saw the power that boats gave his enemy, enabling them to move troops, supplies, and eventually retreat on waterways, that men of the steppes could not deal with. Soon Kublai was faced with a choice to grab power, pushed by the women in his life, and with a few ideas. One was of building a navy that could unleash the true power of the Mongol Empire.
A very interesting book about a whole lot of subjects. I never though I would learn about the use of paper money under the Mongols, or how much an environmental disaster building an navy could cause to an area, stripping whole forests to the ground leaving nothing even for shade as one poem put it. Weatherford is a very good writer, and one that is very familiar with his subject matter. I read this this book has been a long time in coming, and one can see why. There are plenty of notes, showing a lot of the research that Weatherford did. Weatherford is a good stylist, presenting a lot of information, but not overwhelming the reader in dull facts. I enjoyed the fact that on almost every page I could find something new and interesting.
A book for people interested in both military and cultural history of the Mongol Empire, and Europe. There have been a few new appraisals of the Mongols recently, I consider this one of the best, and most interesting. I look forward to more books by Jack Weatherford.
My high school spent little time in discussing the Mongol invasions of Europe and Asia, even though I remember a class on Western Civilization that should have mentioned it at least slightly. The textbooks for the class were written in the Reagan era, so being so close to the Vietnam war, maybe Texas didn't want textbooks detailing Europe's near conquest from the East. I gave up wondering about my education in high school, though I do wonder if much of what I did not learn explains the world of today. My knowledge of Kublai Khan came more from the awesome, at least in my opinion, song by the progressive Canadian band Rush, "Xanadu" and the equally mesmerizing and ethereal poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kubla Khan, or A Vision in a Dream. Later as I read more history I learned about the Mongols, their armies, their ways of ruling, and even more about Kublai Khan. However I don't remember learning about the rise of the Mongols on the ocean, what this meant and how it changed Mongol history. Emperor of the Seas: Kublai Khan and the Making of China by educator and scholar Jack Weatherford tells of Kublai Khan, his rise to power, his interest in things far beyond empire building and how he came to see the sea as something more than a barrier, or annoyance, but as a power to be controlled.
The book begins with a history of the time, and how the Mongol empire gained and held their power. Readers learn of the battles behind the scenes for power, the poisonings, the accident that moved people in power, and the fact that women had a surprising say, and a lot of power in the courts. Kublai Kahn was the grandson of the Genghis Khan, and took much after his mother in looks and attitudes. Kublai was more of person who liked knowledge, meeting with people and learning things, rather than cross the steppes on horseback. Or even to fight the many, many wars the Mongols were in the middle of. Kublai liked to use his gout as an excuse for not leading his armies, and after a few embarrassment was assigned an older war leader and his son to actually command the armies the Kublai was given. This gave Kublai a chance to do what he did best, observe, learn, and make deals when possible. It was in battles with the armies of Vietnam that Kublai saw the power that boats gave his enemy, enabling them to move troops, supplies, and eventually retreat on waterways, that men of the steppes could not deal with. Soon Kublai was faced with a choice to grab power, pushed by the women in his life, and with a few ideas. One was of building a navy that could unleash the true power of the Mongol Empire.
A very interesting book about a whole lot of subjects. I never though I would learn about the use of paper money under the Mongols, or how much an environmental disaster building an navy could cause to an area, stripping whole forests to the ground leaving nothing even for shade as one poem put it. Weatherford is a very good writer, and one that is very familiar with his subject matter. I read this this book has been a long time in coming, and one can see why. There are plenty of notes, showing a lot of the research that Weatherford did. Weatherford is a good stylist, presenting a lot of information, but not overwhelming the reader in dull facts. I enjoyed the fact that on almost every page I could find something new and interesting.
A book for people interested in both military and cultural history of the Mongol Empire, and Europe. There have been a few new appraisals of the Mongols recently, I consider this one of the best, and most interesting. I look forward to more books by Jack Weatherford.
December 26, 2024
Ask someone to picture the Mongols of the past empire, and they’ll almost certainly (and justifiably, understandably) conjure up an image of a warrior on horseback, bow in hands, string pulled taut. But in Emperor of the Seas, Jack Weatherford clearly elucidates how Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, turned the nomadic horse-centered Mongols into a formidable naval power, allowing them to conquer southern China and expand their already vast empire, though they also suffered multiple setbacks along the way. It’s an often fascinating tale and one that will open up for many a wholly new part of history.
Weatherford does a nice job of setting the historical context for the cultural shift, and also explaining the motivation for such a drastic change in strategy, in particular the way in which southern China, then controlled by the once-powerful-but-now-in-decline Song dynasty was able to hold out so long against the Mongols thanks to being protected by border rivers. The shift was not easy or without major issues, but as Weatherford clearly depicts, eventually Kublai through various methods was able to overcome the Mongol fear/distrust of boats and breach the protective waters, opening up all of the wealth and skill of southern China to be exploited. From there, he built the world’s greatest navy at the time, extending Mongol influence to far-flung destinations.
That’s not to say this happened without setbacks. Multiple times Kublai tried to invade other countries and failed at great loss of life. Japan and Vietnam, for instance, both repulsed the invaders. But while the Mongol fleets didn’t always succeed militarily, they were nearly always successful economically, extending trade routes across Asia and the Middle East and making the Mongols the preeminent economic power in the world for some time. Eventually Kublai’s losses caught up with him, and Weatherford follows the Empire into his waning years and beyond, bringing us up to date in terms of China’s naval power and aspirations.
Weatherford places all of this in multiple contexts. Historical of course, covering aspects of Chinese, European, and Middle Eastern history in addition to Mongol. He shows how Kublai instituted changes beyond the focus on naval power, using diplomacy for instance more often then direct violence in comparison to his grandfather and especially his father (who “acquired a reputation as the most vicious of Genghis Kahn’s sons”) and also his openness to Chinese culture. Gender issues are also explored as Weatherford show the, possibly surprising to some readers, incredible power wielded by the women in the Empire.
Weatherford is an extremely accessible writer. The prose is always clear, as are the logistics of battles, the political maneuvering and machinations (whether within the Mongol Empire or between it and its outside allies/foes), the shifts in time and place. It’s all easy to follow. Weatherford also does a good job of making clear just when sources are reliable or possibly not or lack widespread collaboration from other texts, something not always the case in popular history works. He may did into the weeds of details more than some readers prefer, and the extension beyond Kublai’s death may go further for others, but those are mere quibbles. Overall, this is an informative, accessible, interesting look at a relatively unexplored/unknown (to the general public at least) part of history. Recommended.
Weatherford does a nice job of setting the historical context for the cultural shift, and also explaining the motivation for such a drastic change in strategy, in particular the way in which southern China, then controlled by the once-powerful-but-now-in-decline Song dynasty was able to hold out so long against the Mongols thanks to being protected by border rivers. The shift was not easy or without major issues, but as Weatherford clearly depicts, eventually Kublai through various methods was able to overcome the Mongol fear/distrust of boats and breach the protective waters, opening up all of the wealth and skill of southern China to be exploited. From there, he built the world’s greatest navy at the time, extending Mongol influence to far-flung destinations.
That’s not to say this happened without setbacks. Multiple times Kublai tried to invade other countries and failed at great loss of life. Japan and Vietnam, for instance, both repulsed the invaders. But while the Mongol fleets didn’t always succeed militarily, they were nearly always successful economically, extending trade routes across Asia and the Middle East and making the Mongols the preeminent economic power in the world for some time. Eventually Kublai’s losses caught up with him, and Weatherford follows the Empire into his waning years and beyond, bringing us up to date in terms of China’s naval power and aspirations.
Weatherford places all of this in multiple contexts. Historical of course, covering aspects of Chinese, European, and Middle Eastern history in addition to Mongol. He shows how Kublai instituted changes beyond the focus on naval power, using diplomacy for instance more often then direct violence in comparison to his grandfather and especially his father (who “acquired a reputation as the most vicious of Genghis Kahn’s sons”) and also his openness to Chinese culture. Gender issues are also explored as Weatherford show the, possibly surprising to some readers, incredible power wielded by the women in the Empire.
Weatherford is an extremely accessible writer. The prose is always clear, as are the logistics of battles, the political maneuvering and machinations (whether within the Mongol Empire or between it and its outside allies/foes), the shifts in time and place. It’s all easy to follow. Weatherford also does a good job of making clear just when sources are reliable or possibly not or lack widespread collaboration from other texts, something not always the case in popular history works. He may did into the weeds of details more than some readers prefer, and the extension beyond Kublai’s death may go further for others, but those are mere quibbles. Overall, this is an informative, accessible, interesting look at a relatively unexplored/unknown (to the general public at least) part of history. Recommended.
November 17, 2024
I am grateful to Bloomsbury USA for providing me with an ARC:of Jack Weatherford's "Emperor of the Seas: Kublai Khan and the Making of Modern China." It is a revelation and an astounding bit of scholarship on a subject of great interest to all of us but one which has been badly neglected in traditional Western oriented historiography. The title is a bit misleading if it leads you to believe this is a study of naval history. Instead, naval developments in the Mongol Empire founded by Genghis Khan are traced through the reign of Kublai Khan as a kind of entry point to a much broader discussion of the history of the Chinese state and society. It is, quite frankly, simply riveting and is filled with little known or discussed facts about Chinese history from the Mongol conquest of the North to the ascension of the Ming Dynasty. If you want a better understanding of the off and on again Chinese development of a Blue Water Navy, this is a great starting point. In addition, the selection of the maritime elements of events as central ties it to modern perceptions and misconceptions about the nature of Chinese society and the internal stresses present throughout the evolution of the modern Chinese multicultural empire. Military events play an important role here, but they are only lightly glossed over in pursuit of the author's broader project of contextualizing Chinese attitudes towards trade and shipping as key to an understanding of Modern China. From Mongol foreign policy to the development of an economic and political infrastructure, there is a lot here to unpack. This text belongs in any academic library and merits serious consideration for even more general readers. It is truly fascinating.
October 4, 2025
3.5⭐️
This is the second book I have read on Kublai Khan, and while “Emperor of the Seas” is well-researched and eloquently written, it does not quite reach the same depth as “Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.” I would have welcomed more detailed insights into Kublai’s conquests and administration. Instead, much of the book focuses on events both preceding and following his reign, sometimes diverging into discussions of early American history and Sino-American relations. While this information is fascinating, it feels somewhat out of place in a book dedicated to Kublai Khan, who truly deserves a biography entirely devoted to his extraordinary life and legacy.
The author offers a balanced and thoughtful portrait of one of history’s greatest Mongol Khans the conqueror of China, the inventor of paper money, and the architect of what we now call the Silk Road. We also learn that his administration was deeply corrupt, his military campaigns increasingly superficial and ending in disastrous failures in Japan, Vietnam, and Java. Instead of uniting the Mongol tribes, Kublai chose to found his own dynasty in China, resulting in lasting civil strife with his own people. Perhaps this is why he is often remembered more as a Chinese emperor than a Mongol leader today.
Despite its shortcomings, this book deepened my understanding of China’s pivotal role in medieval times, its philosophy, and its development. It provides a rich view of a fascinating era and a ruler who shaped history in unexpected ways.
This is the second book I have read on Kublai Khan, and while “Emperor of the Seas” is well-researched and eloquently written, it does not quite reach the same depth as “Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.” I would have welcomed more detailed insights into Kublai’s conquests and administration. Instead, much of the book focuses on events both preceding and following his reign, sometimes diverging into discussions of early American history and Sino-American relations. While this information is fascinating, it feels somewhat out of place in a book dedicated to Kublai Khan, who truly deserves a biography entirely devoted to his extraordinary life and legacy.
The author offers a balanced and thoughtful portrait of one of history’s greatest Mongol Khans the conqueror of China, the inventor of paper money, and the architect of what we now call the Silk Road. We also learn that his administration was deeply corrupt, his military campaigns increasingly superficial and ending in disastrous failures in Japan, Vietnam, and Java. Instead of uniting the Mongol tribes, Kublai chose to found his own dynasty in China, resulting in lasting civil strife with his own people. Perhaps this is why he is often remembered more as a Chinese emperor than a Mongol leader today.
Despite its shortcomings, this book deepened my understanding of China’s pivotal role in medieval times, its philosophy, and its development. It provides a rich view of a fascinating era and a ruler who shaped history in unexpected ways.
January 5, 2025
In this fascinating history of the Mongol empire under Genchis Khan and Kublai Khan’s Yuan dynasty and their expansion of the empire through its navy, Jack Weatherford explores the massive impact that the Mongol dynasty and its expansion over land and sea had on China and its cultural and political development. In understanding achievements in cartography, mathematics, astrological navigation, paper money, and shipbuilding, readers get to take advantage of Weatherford’s narrative skill and access to fascinating primary documents from China and Mongolia in understanding this fascinating turn point in naval history. The focus on small changes with large impacts really emphasize the significance of controlling the sea on trade, politics, and warfare, and Weatherford helps readers follow Kublai Khan’s thought processes through his political decisions. In challenging the notion of Mongols as pure horse riders, this book helps readers gain a more complex and nuanced understanding of the Mongols and their impact on modern disciplines traditionally only associated with Europe. The narrative structure of the book really builds on each chapter to create a strong narrative, and it allows readers to fully understand the different historical events, innovations, and figures (and their long-term significance) to this brilliant and well-written new history title.
Thanks to NetGalley and Bloomsbury USA for the advance copy.
Thanks to NetGalley and Bloomsbury USA for the advance copy.
June 22, 2025
"Emperor of the Seas" covers the conquests and rule of Kublai Khan as well as the aftermath of Chinese naval power after Kublai. The book explains how the Mongols, who in the past used to avoid rivers and were not at all acquainted with shipping, called in Muslim engineers to develop their naval technology and built the largest naval power in the world under Kublai Khan. Such naval power was important in the conquest of Song China, as well as in the unsuccessful attacks on the Japanese and Dai Viet.
Naval power was also used to expand maritime trade, and the dominance of Mongol power in turn facilitated the protection of maritime trade. Whereas most Song dynasty trade went through Indian and Arab merchants, most Yuan dynasty trade went through Chinese merchants. Quanzhou became the largest trading port in the world and Southeast Asian and Indian Ocean trade expanded.
Naval power was also a vital ingredient of Zhu Yuanzhang's success in overthrowing the Yuan and inaugurating the Ming. Once fully in power, however, Zhu Yuanzhang significantly restricted shipping, with severe penalties, including restricting trade missions from countries abroad to China. Emperor Yongle briefly returned the Ming to the sea through the Zheng He voyages, but given the expense and the priority of defense against the Mongols, shipping again declined, though later the early Qing did again partially re-prioritize naval power.
Naval power was also used to expand maritime trade, and the dominance of Mongol power in turn facilitated the protection of maritime trade. Whereas most Song dynasty trade went through Indian and Arab merchants, most Yuan dynasty trade went through Chinese merchants. Quanzhou became the largest trading port in the world and Southeast Asian and Indian Ocean trade expanded.
Naval power was also a vital ingredient of Zhu Yuanzhang's success in overthrowing the Yuan and inaugurating the Ming. Once fully in power, however, Zhu Yuanzhang significantly restricted shipping, with severe penalties, including restricting trade missions from countries abroad to China. Emperor Yongle briefly returned the Ming to the sea through the Zheng He voyages, but given the expense and the priority of defense against the Mongols, shipping again declined, though later the early Qing did again partially re-prioritize naval power.
February 5, 2025
Jack Weatherford’s Emperor of the Seas is a beautifully written exploration of the Mongolian Empire, offering deep insight into its governance, leadership, and societal structures. One of the book’s most compelling aspects is its focus on the vital role women played in the empire. Unlike many other civilizations of the time, Mongolian women held significant governmental positions and actively contributed to the empire’s success. Khan’s wives, in particular, were portrayed as brilliant and decisive leaders who helped shape the course of history.
The book also highlights the Mongols’ forward-thinking approach to education. Well before the Japanese adopted similar strategies, the Mongols sent their own people abroad to study and bring back valuable knowledge. This commitment to learning and adaptation strengthened their rule and expanded their influence.
Kublai Khan emerges as a particularly fascinating figure—an exceptional ruler who demonstrated unmatched skill in governance and empire-building. His leadership remained strong until his death, leaving a lasting legacy.
Weatherford’s masterful storytelling and thorough research make Emperor of the Seas an engaging and insightful read. It provides a fresh perspective on the Mongolian Empire and its groundbreaking approaches to leadership and cultural exchange.
Rating: 5/5
The book also highlights the Mongols’ forward-thinking approach to education. Well before the Japanese adopted similar strategies, the Mongols sent their own people abroad to study and bring back valuable knowledge. This commitment to learning and adaptation strengthened their rule and expanded their influence.
Kublai Khan emerges as a particularly fascinating figure—an exceptional ruler who demonstrated unmatched skill in governance and empire-building. His leadership remained strong until his death, leaving a lasting legacy.
Weatherford’s masterful storytelling and thorough research make Emperor of the Seas an engaging and insightful read. It provides a fresh perspective on the Mongolian Empire and its groundbreaking approaches to leadership and cultural exchange.
Rating: 5/5
January 9, 2025
This is good - but not as GREAT as his book on Ghenghis Khan.
However, while the story isn't as tight or well-crafted (could someone PLEASE get this book copy-edited!), there are LOTS of interesting tid bits, such as:
Mongolians don't talk about death or dying; the say people "completed his/her age". Which I find rather lovely.
Coming to a summary of Kublai's life, Weatherford starts with "Great men have great faults." (p 232). Oh! Yes!
And lastly, the last chapter tells of how China and particular wealthy Chinese merchants aided and supported Americans in the 1800s as they went about establishing themselves on the world stage, in international trade.
I think that Weatherford's real desire here was to try to teach the US about its own history with China. He is clearly concerned about what is going on in the world - perhaps in the US in particular - so he ends with (p. 313): "Sometimes the sea divides us. Sometimes the sea unites us. We have the choice. The next chapter remains to be written."
Thank you Jack Weatherford! I think I need to read two of your other books - the one about the Mongol Queens, and the one about Native Americans. And I plan to get to Mongolia in the foreseeable future!
However, while the story isn't as tight or well-crafted (could someone PLEASE get this book copy-edited!), there are LOTS of interesting tid bits, such as:
Mongolians don't talk about death or dying; the say people "completed his/her age". Which I find rather lovely.
Coming to a summary of Kublai's life, Weatherford starts with "Great men have great faults." (p 232). Oh! Yes!
And lastly, the last chapter tells of how China and particular wealthy Chinese merchants aided and supported Americans in the 1800s as they went about establishing themselves on the world stage, in international trade.
I think that Weatherford's real desire here was to try to teach the US about its own history with China. He is clearly concerned about what is going on in the world - perhaps in the US in particular - so he ends with (p. 313): "Sometimes the sea divides us. Sometimes the sea unites us. We have the choice. The next chapter remains to be written."
Thank you Jack Weatherford! I think I need to read two of your other books - the one about the Mongol Queens, and the one about Native Americans. And I plan to get to Mongolia in the foreseeable future!
April 10, 2025
Great book on the emergence of China as the first maritime super-power under the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and more specifically Kubilaï Khan, grand-son of Gengis Khan. The naval technologies in Asia were far superior to what existed in Europe. The author shows that KK's and the Mongol's genius were to adapt and be able to learn. This led to a period of dominance of sea and trade between Asia and the middle-East and to huge changes in production and specialization in China.
This era came to an end under the Ming and the arrival of the first Europeans. This decline is the least documented part of the book, sadly. The last chapter mentioning the ties between China and the new emerging American nation is interesting also.
Thrilling, breathtaking and with a lot of unknown facts, illustrated by history, anthropology and psychology, I greatly appreciated this book by Jack Weatherford (my 3rd from this author).
This era came to an end under the Ming and the arrival of the first Europeans. This decline is the least documented part of the book, sadly. The last chapter mentioning the ties between China and the new emerging American nation is interesting also.
Thrilling, breathtaking and with a lot of unknown facts, illustrated by history, anthropology and psychology, I greatly appreciated this book by Jack Weatherford (my 3rd from this author).
November 20, 2025
I think this is my favorite of Jack Weatherford's books so far. His coverage of history is extensive and fascinating, with an incredibly image-rich writing style. The chapters flow into each other really nicely, with a cohesive narrative throughout the whole book.
I really like that Weatherford built on the information from his previous books. Both Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World and The Secret History of the Mongol Queens were really helpful and contained a lot of context for Kublai's rise to power and the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire.
I did feel that the final chapter was a pretty massive leap, from the Age of Exploration right to the Opium Wars. This chapter had a particularly Western lens compared to the rest of the book, and I wish it had been more focused on Qing China and its relationship with the Mongols. In all, though, this book provides stunning coverage of maritime trade from the age of the Mongols and beyond.
I really like that Weatherford built on the information from his previous books. Both Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World and The Secret History of the Mongol Queens were really helpful and contained a lot of context for Kublai's rise to power and the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire.
I did feel that the final chapter was a pretty massive leap, from the Age of Exploration right to the Opium Wars. This chapter had a particularly Western lens compared to the rest of the book, and I wish it had been more focused on Qing China and its relationship with the Mongols. In all, though, this book provides stunning coverage of maritime trade from the age of the Mongols and beyond.
December 18, 2024
To say that the Mongols of the 13th century weren’t seafaring is an understament. They didn’t even like to get on boats. Jack Weatherford explains why – and that he does is an important reason why this is such a good book. How the leader of a bunch of landlocked Mongol horsemen became the Emperor of the Yuan dynasty in China and built an oceangoing navy to do so is complex. It is the story of multiple transitions – political, social, economic. History becomes interesting in the details and some might find this book too detailed. I found it terrifically informative. Weatherford makes clear the whys and hows and their consequences.
I received an advance digitl copy of this book compliments of Bloomsbury and NetGalley.
I received an advance digitl copy of this book compliments of Bloomsbury and NetGalley.
March 29, 2025
Good, interesting read. Especially appreciated learning about development of paper money (and counterfeiting), commercial manufacturing and trade, development of restaurants, and the role of Mongol women in shaping economic policy. Cool stuff. I will say, I don’t entirely agree with the author’s overarching argument, and the epilogue tries to take a 1930s Eugene O’Neill play meant to be critical of contemporary American culture to make a point about the differences between East and West, but it agitates against the historical narrative described in the book
March 19, 2025
Great read and covering so much history! I knew about Genghis Khan but very little about his decedents, specifically Kublai. To understand how he united China and created both vast commercial and military fleets of ships was very eye opening. Even introducing paper currency! As the author points out you can see parallels with today’s China and the Western World, who knows how things will play out!
November 12, 2025
DON'T MISTAKE MY 3 STAR FOR A BAD REVIEW! THIS WAS A FUN BOOK!
Given to me by my dear Friend Zach G. and his future wife and business manager O., this tome is all about EARLY SAILING which is the favorite topics of many a nerd. I found the book a bit lacking the historiography department which is supposed to be what Weatherford is known for ... but that's too in the weeds. Highly recommend - for those who are into this stuff.
Given to me by my dear Friend Zach G. and his future wife and business manager O., this tome is all about EARLY SAILING which is the favorite topics of many a nerd. I found the book a bit lacking the historiography department which is supposed to be what Weatherford is known for ... but that's too in the weeds. Highly recommend - for those who are into this stuff.
December 27, 2025
Fascinating way to begin learning about this era of history. The first third or so of the book is entrancing, so well written that it really draws you in, and gives the impression that the author was there themself! It lost me a little bit further on however, and by the end I thought a lot of it probably could have been cut in order to highlight the more important points.
Ultimately 'Emperor of the Seas' is an accessible entry into Chinese and Mongolian history.
Ultimately 'Emperor of the Seas' is an accessible entry into Chinese and Mongolian history.
February 27, 2025
This is a surprisingly readable biography of Kublai Khan--surprising because of the number of sources that remain to give the author such detailed information about Kublai Khan's life and times. It does get bogged down in details at times, and including a few more maps would have been helpful to this reader, but overall, this was informative and interesting.
Displaying 1 - 30 of 43 reviews