Totalitarianism and fascist ideology are making a comeback--like a phantom lurking in a dark, forgotten chamber waiting to reemerge. In his essay, Ur-Fascism, Eco lays out 14 characteristics that define the contradictory, cancerous nature of what he calls Ur-Fascism--the primordial strain from which various oppressive regimes have sprung: Italian Fascism, German Nazism, Spanish Falangism, the Yugoslav Ustashe, and others. He argues that even a single one of these aspects is enough to set Ur-Fascism in motion.
Unlike Nazism or Stalinist Marxism, Italian Fascism was ideologically weak and was inherently contradictory--yet it worked because people simply accepted this doctrine. Despite this weakness, it was the first modern dictatorship in Europe, setting the template for stronger, more monolithic totalitarian movements elsewhere. "The term 'Fascism' fits everything because it is possible to eliminate one or more aspects from a Fascist regime and it will always be recognizably Fascist." Eco warns that Ur-Fascism is still alive today: "Our duty is to unmask it and to point the finger at each of its new forms--every day, in every part of the world."
One of Eco's key insights is that the Second World War is often framed as a straightforward battle between the liberal Resistance and the Fascist Axis, but this oversimplifies history. Totalitarianism is a broad phenomenon that spanned multiple regimes before and after the war: Italian Fascism, German Nazism, Salazar's dictatorship in Portugal, Tito's dictatorship in Yugoslavia, Stalinist repression in the USSR, from Argentina's Peronism to Cambodia's Khmer Rouge. Eco also highlights how communist factions piggybacked the Resistance, using the war as a stepping stone to seize power and further their own oppressive rule.
The second essay, Censorship and Silence, centers on a type of censorship that often goes unnoticed--censorship through noise. Traditional censorship through silence--like Tito's Goli Otok and Stalin's purges--is fairly straightforward. In contrast, there's a subtler form where an overwhelming flood of irrelevant information censors the true message. It is difficult to dispose of a true but irrelevant story because it creates suspicion, whereas a relevant fact can be challenged. Advertisers use this strategy, creating noise to make a product unforgettable because it is virtually indistinguishable from the competition--like detergents, fabric softeners, and air fresheners. Eco argues we need to go back to silence: "It is in silence alone that the only truly powerful means of information becomes effective--word of mouth."
In the third and final essay, We Are European, Eco argues for a shared European identity that the pan-European project--the European Union--was meant to solidify, in hopes of ending the cycles of conflict that have plagued Europe throughout history. Yet, Eco is realistic: despite these ideals, wars, hatred, and intolerance still persist within Europe's borders. Recent conflicts, such as Catalan separatism and the Ukraine-Russia war, prove he was right.
Additionally, there's a new kind of warfare against people who live in Europe, but are treated as non-EU nationals which implies the EU is inherently xenophobic. The enlargement fatigue regarding the Western Balkans and Eastern Europe only highlights the project's fragility as it stubbornly refuses to define Europe's geographic borders within the Union and prevent further conflicts.
Still, Eco makes an important distinction: "Fighting against our own intolerance does not mean having to accept every world view or make ethical relativism the new European religion." We must be both tolerant and prudent--distinguishing what is acceptable from what is intolerable--and preserve the best values of our European heritage. Rather than offering a fixed solution, Eco acknowledges that we face a different kind of war now and that, as Europeans, we need to develop a new model of peace. This discussion also ties into the fifth characteristic of Ur-Fascism--the natural fear of difference--which manifests as racism and anti-Semitism--hatred based on phenotype--against foreigners and immigrants.