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Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s
Separate Beds is the shocking story of Canada's system of segregated health care. Operated by the same bureaucracy that was expanding health care opportunities for most Canadians, the "Indian Hospitals" were underfunded, understaffed, overcrowded, and rife with coercion and medical experimentation. Established to keep the Aboriginal tuberculosis population isolated, they became a means of ensuring that other Canadians need not share access to modern hospitals with Aboriginal patients.
Tracing the history of the system from its fragmentary origins to its gradual collapse, Maureen K. Lux describes the arbitrary and contradictory policies that governed the "Indian Hospitals," the experiences of patients and staff, and the vital grassroots activism that pressed the federal government to acknowledge its treaty obligations.
A disturbing look at the dark side of the liberal welfare state, Separate Beds reveals a history of racism and negligence in health care for Canada's First Nations that should never be forgotten.
Tracing the history of the system from its fragmentary origins to its gradual collapse, Maureen K. Lux describes the arbitrary and contradictory policies that governed the "Indian Hospitals," the experiences of patients and staff, and the vital grassroots activism that pressed the federal government to acknowledge its treaty obligations.
A disturbing look at the dark side of the liberal welfare state, Separate Beds reveals a history of racism and negligence in health care for Canada's First Nations that should never be forgotten.
288 pages, Paperback
First published October 30, 2013
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335 people want to read
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Displaying 1 - 12 of 12 reviews
June 8, 2018
I live on Vancouver Island in a remote region with a majority First Nations population. Over the past decade I've heard first hand accounts from survivors of the Nanaimo Indian Hospital. I suspect this book had to cut out many stories such as these, because people would struggle to believe them.
Medical experimentation, restraints in full body cast after an escape attempt and to facilitate such experimentation, having to be naked 24 / 7 as a means of keeping them in their beds, false imprisonment and isolation for years at a time, combined with sick and horrifically creative elements of abuse that could not possibly have any medical justification. Many of these stories from the "Indian Hospital" parallel stories from local "Residential Schools" where native children were tormented simply for being native, by the religious abusers who were charged with their care.
I believe this book just begins to scratch the surface of what some survivors experienced in these hospitals.
As a healthcare worker, though I knew of residential schools, I only learned of the existence of indian hospitals after moving to Vancouver Island. I believe in public health care, and every citizen's right to health care, and I was heartbroken and horrified to learn this part of history.
No I would not call this the dark side of "liberal" politics. This is white supremacy / colonial policy, which still continues today, by the way. The religious right had a big part to play, which is why the Anglican and Catholic institutions are being sued by residential school survivors, and prosecuted for the deaths of many children in their care (when forensic evidence can point to evidence of violence as the cause of death.)
I hope that many first nations folks continue to give voice to their experiences. The non-FN Canadian people are just starting to become aware of the systemic genocide spanning over more than a century, and most people are not aware of how this continues today, often perpetuated by social services.
There are still FN kids today who need help, the damage will take generations to heal, and all Canadians are responsible for seeing this through by holding our politicians accountable and witnessing the experiences.
Medical experimentation, restraints in full body cast after an escape attempt and to facilitate such experimentation, having to be naked 24 / 7 as a means of keeping them in their beds, false imprisonment and isolation for years at a time, combined with sick and horrifically creative elements of abuse that could not possibly have any medical justification. Many of these stories from the "Indian Hospital" parallel stories from local "Residential Schools" where native children were tormented simply for being native, by the religious abusers who were charged with their care.
I believe this book just begins to scratch the surface of what some survivors experienced in these hospitals.
As a healthcare worker, though I knew of residential schools, I only learned of the existence of indian hospitals after moving to Vancouver Island. I believe in public health care, and every citizen's right to health care, and I was heartbroken and horrified to learn this part of history.
No I would not call this the dark side of "liberal" politics. This is white supremacy / colonial policy, which still continues today, by the way. The religious right had a big part to play, which is why the Anglican and Catholic institutions are being sued by residential school survivors, and prosecuted for the deaths of many children in their care (when forensic evidence can point to evidence of violence as the cause of death.)
I hope that many first nations folks continue to give voice to their experiences. The non-FN Canadian people are just starting to become aware of the systemic genocide spanning over more than a century, and most people are not aware of how this continues today, often perpetuated by social services.
There are still FN kids today who need help, the damage will take generations to heal, and all Canadians are responsible for seeing this through by holding our politicians accountable and witnessing the experiences.
January 23, 2017
An excellent academic treatment of the system of Indian Hospitals set up in Canada. Dr. Lux says from the outset that she is focusing on understanding the government bureaucracy through the documentary record, but still balances this well with some oral histories from Indigenous Elders, leaders and former patients of the hospitals. In particular, I found her exploration of the Blackfoot and Blood hospitals in southern Alberta really showed the hypocrisy and paradoxes inherent in government policy at the time - as well as the medical pluralism (traditional and biomedical) that occurred in these institutions. The Hobbema (Mascwacis) and Battleford examples in particular demonstrated how Indigenous communities fought for access to health care - a treaty right - on their own terms, especially in the face of discrimination in community hospitals.
Finally, Lux shows convincingly that government and medical bureaucrats were often motivated by prejudice, avarice, and their own self interest, even as they couched their work in a cloak of humanitarianism.
Separate Beds is an essential companion book to James Daschuk's Clearing the Plains and Ian Mosby's work on nutritional experiments on reserves and in residential schools. It shows so many of the root causes of health disparities between Indigenous communities and the rest of Canada, and how Canadians have benefited not just from the signing of the treaties, but through the medical cost savings the government squeezed out of Indigenous peoples. While Canadians are incredibly proud of our Medicare system and count it as a defining feature of our identity, it was in large part funded by the creation of a parallel system that penalized and underserved Indigenous individuals and communities.
Finally, Lux shows convincingly that government and medical bureaucrats were often motivated by prejudice, avarice, and their own self interest, even as they couched their work in a cloak of humanitarianism.
Separate Beds is an essential companion book to James Daschuk's Clearing the Plains and Ian Mosby's work on nutritional experiments on reserves and in residential schools. It shows so many of the root causes of health disparities between Indigenous communities and the rest of Canada, and how Canadians have benefited not just from the signing of the treaties, but through the medical cost savings the government squeezed out of Indigenous peoples. While Canadians are incredibly proud of our Medicare system and count it as a defining feature of our identity, it was in large part funded by the creation of a parallel system that penalized and underserved Indigenous individuals and communities.
March 31, 2021
An incredibly informative and well written book that should be a must read for all students growing up in the Canadian education system (and any other colonized country). Health disparities run rampant across the continent and it is imperative we understand that this so called “history” happened within the last century. There are people alive today who lived through and currently live with the physical and mental trauma from the IHS.
As a student put through the Canadian curriculum I was ashamed to come to know of these horrifying counts that I otherwise was not informed of. I believe that all those (not exclusive to Canada) living on colonized land NEED to read books like this to not only educate yourself accurately about indigenous history but to ALSO come together as a community to repent for what was done and ensure this never happens again.
Health disparities exist among marginalized communities to this day and it is imperative that we don’t turn a blind eye to it any longer. I know this book only scratches the surface of all the atrocities that have ever taken places, but I believe it’s a good place to start if you’re looking to educate yourself.
As a student put through the Canadian curriculum I was ashamed to come to know of these horrifying counts that I otherwise was not informed of. I believe that all those (not exclusive to Canada) living on colonized land NEED to read books like this to not only educate yourself accurately about indigenous history but to ALSO come together as a community to repent for what was done and ensure this never happens again.
Health disparities exist among marginalized communities to this day and it is imperative that we don’t turn a blind eye to it any longer. I know this book only scratches the surface of all the atrocities that have ever taken places, but I believe it’s a good place to start if you’re looking to educate yourself.
November 21, 2025
I read this for work. It's a dense historical account that requires some determination to get through but provides an excellent summary of not just the operations and pain and suffering related to Indian hospitals but also the broader political movements and policy choices.
May 31, 2021
In the interest of full disclosure, Dr. Lux was my supervisor when I was a student at Brock University, and employed by her as a research assistant. I am credited in the Acknowledgements.
Canada has a long way to go to grapple with the history (and present) of racism and genocide against indigenous people. I think it is oftentimes comes down to a broad caricature of behaviours and policies. While many Canadians accept that residential schools were terrible policy, that may still not understand how racism pervaded interactions between indigenous peoples and settler government and societies.
For many people it is difficult to imagine racism in other areas of life, such as medical care. Lux provides a disturbing and vivid description of how medicine as a profession and health care institutions mistreated and abused indigenous communities and patients, how racist assumptions led to abusive policy choices and compounded neglect.
While this is an academic text it is highly accessible. The language is approachable and concepts and figures are laid out clearly. I think anyone could pick this up and empathize with the human stories contained within and be stunned by the horror of the system. I think it is important here to emphasize that some of the content of the book is disturbing. Medical experiments, abuse by doctors, nurses and hospital administrators, and barbaric treatments described in detail may be difficult for some to read through. I think it's important though as it underscore the ill-treatment and inhumanity perpetrated against fellow human beings.
In so many ways the history of indigenous healthcare in Canada is a story about white supremacy. First health issues were ignored as part of the vision of the extinction of the Indian, then interventions were demanded when white communities feared contagion. Resources were jealously guarded and the system segregated despite the illogical nature of these divides. Even when segregated, the bureaucracy refused to allow them to be spaces controlled and staffed by indigenous people.
One of the things I value about this book is the careful documentation of how institutions that should be there for the welfare of others can be tools of oppression. It very much offered a new perspective for me.
I'd highly recommend this book to any interested in this subject and reconciliation.
Canada has a long way to go to grapple with the history (and present) of racism and genocide against indigenous people. I think it is oftentimes comes down to a broad caricature of behaviours and policies. While many Canadians accept that residential schools were terrible policy, that may still not understand how racism pervaded interactions between indigenous peoples and settler government and societies.
For many people it is difficult to imagine racism in other areas of life, such as medical care. Lux provides a disturbing and vivid description of how medicine as a profession and health care institutions mistreated and abused indigenous communities and patients, how racist assumptions led to abusive policy choices and compounded neglect.
While this is an academic text it is highly accessible. The language is approachable and concepts and figures are laid out clearly. I think anyone could pick this up and empathize with the human stories contained within and be stunned by the horror of the system. I think it is important here to emphasize that some of the content of the book is disturbing. Medical experiments, abuse by doctors, nurses and hospital administrators, and barbaric treatments described in detail may be difficult for some to read through. I think it's important though as it underscore the ill-treatment and inhumanity perpetrated against fellow human beings.
In so many ways the history of indigenous healthcare in Canada is a story about white supremacy. First health issues were ignored as part of the vision of the extinction of the Indian, then interventions were demanded when white communities feared contagion. Resources were jealously guarded and the system segregated despite the illogical nature of these divides. Even when segregated, the bureaucracy refused to allow them to be spaces controlled and staffed by indigenous people.
One of the things I value about this book is the careful documentation of how institutions that should be there for the welfare of others can be tools of oppression. It very much offered a new perspective for me.
I'd highly recommend this book to any interested in this subject and reconciliation.
July 31, 2018
Chilling, heart-breaking, informative, and eye-opening, this book is an in-depth and academic examination of the "evil twin" of the Residential School System, the so-called "Indian Hospitals" that formed a key part in Canada's genocidal policies towards the First Nations people.
All Canadians should learn about this history and its impacts that still cause harm today. We need to make this history part of required high school curriculum. We need to ensure safe drinking water to FN communities that live in dire third-world conditions despite our rich country. We need to enhance safety to FN men, women, and children from violence, racism, and sexism. And we need to ensure proper caring, healthcare to FN. And that is only the beginning.
The point is that genocidal policies and practices have deep, deep roots. But this is not the past; this is the present and the future, with themes and realities that live on, unattended and unaddressed. Reconciliation necessitates lifting the veil of silence, taking responsibility for the harms caused, and striving consciously and compassionately towards healing a terrible crime.
All Canadians should learn about this history and its impacts that still cause harm today. We need to make this history part of required high school curriculum. We need to ensure safe drinking water to FN communities that live in dire third-world conditions despite our rich country. We need to enhance safety to FN men, women, and children from violence, racism, and sexism. And we need to ensure proper caring, healthcare to FN. And that is only the beginning.
The point is that genocidal policies and practices have deep, deep roots. But this is not the past; this is the present and the future, with themes and realities that live on, unattended and unaddressed. Reconciliation necessitates lifting the veil of silence, taking responsibility for the harms caused, and striving consciously and compassionately towards healing a terrible crime.
December 28, 2017
At times the academic nature makes it a bit of a slog, but it is really important to understand the way native health has been viewed and prioritized (or not), as well as the ways it interacted with the schooling systems and racism. For example, much of the segregation was justified as necessary to protect the white population from tuberculosis, but many Indian children contracted their tuberculosis from contaminated milk at a residential school, where inadequate nutrition and clothing had already weakened constitutions. The children then took the disease back to the reserves.
The other thing that is hard to ignore is how barbaric treatment for tuberculosis could be, especially if you were not wealthy and white.
The other thing that is hard to ignore is how barbaric treatment for tuberculosis could be, especially if you were not wealthy and white.
March 19, 2019
Honestly, this was the first I'd heard of Indian hospitals. While I appreciated the dry and fact-heavy style, often quick the repetition of dates as well as out-of-timeline reiteration and dense multi page long paragraphs made it a slog to read and retain the information being shown.
More narrative based non-fiction is a breeze to read, but Seperate Beds isn't interested in easy-reading. If you want to know the cold, convoluted calendar of 'medical' care re: indigenous peoples in Canada, this is for you.
More narrative based non-fiction is a breeze to read, but Seperate Beds isn't interested in easy-reading. If you want to know the cold, convoluted calendar of 'medical' care re: indigenous peoples in Canada, this is for you.
January 19, 2026
Lux's text demonstrates the ways the Canadian state enforced racial boundaries through state medical policies and practices. Examining Canadian healthcare system and the "Indian hospital", Lux argues that Indigenous peoples' access to medical care occurred under a segregated system that prevented Indigenous communities from accessing the same level of care and medical space as white settlers. Isolated for their perceived natural "ill health", the DIA provided insufficient and underfunded healthcare to Indigenous communities in part because of a deliberate misunderstanding around treaty rights and fear around dependence and welfare. While governed by treaty rights and unevenly implemented government policies, Lux's text also demonstrates that Indigenous peoples were not passive victims of these policies, but instead fought for access to healthcare and for the government to keep their end of the treaty.
June 3, 2018
A thorough review of the topic revealing much in Canadian History that had previously been ignored, and written in a way accessible to all readers.
August 10, 2021
Very interesting as this is a topic I did not know about. However, it reads like a textbook so it is very dense and difficult to get through. Certainly not a light beach read
November 11, 2016
A sad testament to Canada's darker side.
Displaying 1 - 12 of 12 reviews