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Xunzi: The Complete Text
This is the first complete, one-volume English translation of the ancient Chinese text Xunzi, one of the most extensive, sophisticated, and elegant works in the tradition of Confucian thought. Through essays, poetry, dialogues, and anecdotes, the Xunzi articulates a Confucian perspective on ethics, politics, warfare, language, psychology, human nature, ritual, and music, among other topics. Aimed at general readers and students of Chinese thought, Eric Hutton’s translation makes the full text of this important work more accessible in English than ever before.Named for its purported author, the Xunzi (literally, “Master Xun”) has long been neglected compared to works such as the Analects of Confucius and the Mencius. Yet interest in the Xunzi has grown in recent decades, and the text presents a much more systematic vision of the Confucian ideal than the fragmented sayings of Confucius and Mencius. In one famous, explicit contrast to them, the Xunzi argues that human nature is bad. However, it also allows that people can become good through rituals and institutions established by earlier sages. Indeed, the main purpose of the Xunzi is to urge people to become as good as possible, both for their own sakes and for the sake of peace and order in the world.In this edition, key terms are consistently translated to aid understanding and line numbers are provided for easy reference. Other features include a concise introduction, a timeline of early Chinese history, a list of important names and terms, cross-references, brief explanatory notes, a bibliography, and an index.
425 pages, Kindle Edition
First published April 15, 2003
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Xun Kuang
33 books12 followersXun Kuang ([ɕy̌n kʰwâŋ]; Chinese: 荀況, c. 310 – c. 235 BC, alt. c. 314 – c. 217 B.C.), known as "Master Xun" (Xunzi), was a Chinese Realist Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Educated in the state of Qi, the Xunzi, an influential collection of essays is traditionally attributed to him. Witnessing the chaos surrounding the fall of the Zhou dynasty and rise of the Legalistic Qin state, the philosophy of the Confucian Xunzi has a darker, pragmatic, flavour compared to Confucian optimism of Mencius's view that man is innately good. Xunzi's doctrines were influential in forming the official state doctrine of the Han Dynasty, but during the Tang Dynasty his influence waned compared to that of Mencius.
Xunzi would be the teacher of Qin Chancellor Li Si and Realpolitikal synthesizer Han Feizi, proponents of Legalism believing in control of the state by law and penalty. Like Shang Yang he believed that man's inborn tendencies were evil, and that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind. Because of this, he is sometimes associated with Legalism. But like most Confucians he focuses on and believed that man could be refined through education and ritual.
(from Wikipedia)
Xunzi would be the teacher of Qin Chancellor Li Si and Realpolitikal synthesizer Han Feizi, proponents of Legalism believing in control of the state by law and penalty. Like Shang Yang he believed that man's inborn tendencies were evil, and that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind. Because of this, he is sometimes associated with Legalism. But like most Confucians he focuses on and believed that man could be refined through education and ritual.
(from Wikipedia)
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July 28, 2021The gentleman says: Learning must never stop. (1.1)
The gentleman learns broadly and examines himself thrice daily, and then his knowledge is clear and his conduct is without fault. (1.9-11)
And so if you never climb a high mountain, you will not know the height of Heaven. If you never visit a deep ravine, you will not know the depth of the Earth. If you never hear the words passed down from the former kings, you will not know the magnificence of learning. 91.12-15)
No spirit-like state is greater than having transformed oneself with the Way. (1.25-26)
If you do not first have somber intention,
No brilliant understanding can there be.
If you do not first have determined effort,
No glorious achievements will you see
One walking both forks of a road goes nowhere.
One serving two lords is not viewed welcomely.
Eyes focused on two things at once are not sharp.
Ears tune to two things at once don’t hear clearly. (1.103-112)
Learning proceeds until death and only then does it stop. And so, the order of learning has a stopping point, but its purpose cannot be given up even for a moment. To pursue it is to be human, to give it up is to be a beast. (1.132-135)
In learning, nothing is more expedient than to draw near to the right person. (1.159-160)
Only if people approach you in the proper way should you receive them. If they do not approach you in the proper way, then avoid them. (1.189-191)
One who does not fully comprehend the proper kinds and classes of things, or who is not single-minded in pursuit of ren and yi, does not deserve to be called good at learning. Learning is precisely learning to pursue them single-mindedly. To depart from it in one affair and adhere to it in another is to be such as common people. (1.209-214)
The gentleman knows that whatever is imperfect and unrefined does not deserve praise. And so he repeatedly recites his learning in order to master it, ponders it in order to comprehend it, makes his person so as to dwell in it, and eliminates things harmful to it in order to nourish it. He makes his eyes not want to see what is not right, makes his ears not want to hear what is not right, makes his mouth not want to speak what is not right, and makes his heart not want to deliberate over what is not right. He comes to the point where he loves it, and then his eyes love it more than the five colours, his ears love it more than the five tones, his mouth loves it more than the five flavours, and his heart considers it more profitable than possessing the whole world. For this reason, power and profit cannot sway him, the masses cannot shift him, and nothing in the world can shake him. He lives by this, and he dies by this. This is called the state in which virtue has been grasped. (1.217-231)
When virtue has been grasped, only then can one achieve fixity. When one can achieve fixity, only then can one respond to things. To be capable both of fifty and of responding to things—this is called the perfected person. Heaven shows off its brilliance, Earth shows off its breadth, and the gentleman values his perfection. (1.232-236)
When you observe goodness in others, then inspect yourself, desirous of cultivating it. When you observe badness in others, then examine yourself, fearful of discovering it. If you find goodness in your person, then commend yourself, desirous of holding firm to it. If you find badness in your person, then reproach yourself, regarding it as calamity. And so, he who rightly criticises me acts as a teacher toward me, whole he who flatters and toadies to me acts as a villain toward me. (2.1-8)
If your exertions of blood, qi, intention, and thought accord with ritual, they will be ordered and effective. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be disorderly and unproductive. If your meals, clothing, dwelling, and activities accord with ritual, they will be congenial and well-regulated. If they do not accord with ritual, you will encounter dangers and illnesses. If your countenance, bearing, movements, and stride accord with ritual, they will be graceful. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be barbaric, obtuse, perverse, vulgar, and unruly. (2.38-47)
If their lives are without ritual,
Then people cannot survive.
If affairs are without ritual,
In them success does not thrive.
If state and clan are without ritual,
For them peace does not arrive. (2.48-53)
To lead others along in what is good is called “teaching”. (2.599)
To endorse what is right and condemn what is wrong is called “wisdom”. To cendorse what is wrong and condemn what is right is called “stupidity”. (2.62-64)
To be without fixity in one’s likes and dislikes is called “lacking constancy.” (2.69-70)
The methods for controlling the qi and nourishing the heart: For unyielding blood and qi, soften them with harmoniousness. For overly deep thinking, simplify it with easy goodness. For overly ferocious courage, reform it with proper compliance. For expedience-seeking hastiness, restrain it with regulated movements. For small-minded narrowness, broaden it with expansiveness. For excessive humility, sluggishness, or greed for profit, resist it with lofty intentions. For vulgarity or dissoluteness, expunge it with teachers and friends. For indolence or profligacy, illuminate it with the prospect of disasters. For simple-minded rectitude or scrupulous honesty, make it suitable with ritual and music, and enlighten it with reflection. In each method of controlling the qi, and nourishing the heart, nothing is more direct than following ritual, nothing is more important than having a good teacher, and nothing works with greater spirit-like efficacy than liking it with single-minded devotion. These are called the methods for controlling the qi and nourishing the heart. (2.78-94)
If one’s intentions are cultivated, then one will disregard wealth and nobility. If one’s concern for the Way and yi is great, then one will take kings and duke lightly. (2.95-97)
A saying goes, “The gentleman makes things his servants. The petty man is servant to things.” This expresses my meaning. If an action tires your body but puts your heart at ease, do it. If it involves little profit but much yi, do it. (2.98-102)
A good farmer does not fail to plant because of a drought, a good merchant does not fail to open shop because of losses, and the well-bred man and the gentleman are not lax in their pursuit of the Way because of poverty. (2.104-107)
If you attempt to exhaust the inexhaustible or pursue the limitless, then you can break your bones and rupture your tendons trying, but to the end of your life you will not succeed. If you have some stopping point, then even though a thousand li is far, whether slow or fast, first or last, how could you not fail to reach it? (2.135-140)
In matters of conduct, the gentleman does not esteem feats that are difficult but improper. In matters of argument, he does not esteem improper inquiries. In matters of reputation, he does not esteem improper fame. Only what is proper does he esteem. (3.1-4)
A saying goes, “In both cases the gentleman advances. In both cases the petty man falters.” (3.91-93)
Who can endure pollution from others when one’s own self is pure? (3.116-117)
If you grasp it, then you will attain it. If you let it go, you will lose it. If you grasp and attain it, then it will become easy. When it becomes easy, then you will act steadfastly. If you act steadfastly and do not let it go, then you will improve. If you improve and fully develop your endowment, moving forward for a long time and not returning to your beginnings, then you will be transformed. (3.150-156)
When you see something that may be desirable, be sure to consider forward and backward what may be undesirable in it. When you see something that may be beneficial, be sure to consider forward and backward what may be harmful in it. With both sides and reckon them thoroughly, and only then decide whether it is desirable or undesirable, worth adopting or worth rejecting. If you proceed thus, then you will reliable avoid falling into trouble. (3.208-215)
The fault is with themselves, but instead they seek it in others. How far off the mark they are. (4.85-86)
It is like the way the people of Yue are at home in Yue, and the people of Chu are at home in Chu—the gentleman is at home in what is graceful. They differ not because of endowment, nature, intelligence, and capabilities, but rather because of the measures by which they train and refine themselves. (4.165-170)
They began by changing their original substance and perfected themselves through cultivation. (4.199-201)
By birth, people are originally petty people. Without a teacher or the proper model, they will seek only benefit. (4.202-204)
The natural disposition of people is that for food they want meats, for clothes they want embroidered garments, for travel they want chariots and horses, and moreover they want the riches of surplus wealth and accumulated goods. Even if provided these things, to the end of their years they would never be satisfied; this is also the natural disposition of people. (4.244-249)
They are heroes for petty men. (7.48-49)
If one carries out such learning, then one is called a well-bred man. If one is enthusiastic and devoted to it, then one is a gentleman. If one truly comprehends it, then one is a sage. (8.171-173)
He dwells in poverty but is glorious, lives in seclusion but is joyful. (8.195-196)
Not having heard of it is not as good as having heard of it. Having heard of it is not as good as having seen it. Having seen it is not as good as knowing it. Kn owing it is not as good as putting it into practice. Learning arrives at putting it into practice and then stops because to put it intro practice is to understand it, and to understand it is to be a sage. (8.443-448)
Following teachers and proper models is something one gets from one’s dispositions, not something one receives from human nature. (8.477-479)
Practice and habituation are the means to transform human nature. (8.482-482)
Hence if people nw to be diligent about practice, be careful about habitation, and esteem accumulation and polishing, then they become gentlemen. If they I’ve in to their inborn dispositions and nature and do not sufficiently question and study, then they become petty men. (8.512-516)
As for music, everything that is not refined music is discarded. (9.228-229)
The gentleman is a third partner to Heave and Earth . . . if there were no gentleman, then Heaven and Earth would not be properly ordered, and ritual and yi would be without a unifying guide. (9.296-297, 298-300)
Their fondness for me will be like the way they are attracted to the fragrance of orchids or sesame. (9.508-509)
To be so noble as to be Son of Heaven; to be so rich as to possess the whole world; to have a reputation as being a sage king; to control all others while not being controlled by any other . . . to have abundant food and drink; to have grand music; to have lofty terraces and pavilions; to have vast gardens and parks . . . (11.348-350, 354-356)
That “right person” is such that he lives in the world of today, but his intentions are set on the ways of ancient times. (12.180-181)
For when compared with harming the good, it is better to benefit the perverse. (14.133-134)
In accumulating something that is minute, working at it for a time each month does not surpass working at it for a time each day, working at it for a time each season does not surpass working at it for a time each month, and working at it for a time each year does not surpass working at it for a time each season. In general, people like to be disdainful and scorning of small matters; only when big matters arrive do they then take sip and work at them. When they are like this, they simply will never surpass those who devotedly apply themselves to small matters. Why is this? It is because the occurrence of small matters is frequent, the days over which they spread are many, and their accumulation is big, whereas the occurrence of big matters is sparse, the days over which they spread are few, and their accumulation is small.
And so, he who makes good use of the day will become a true king. (16.330-343)
If the king of Chu has a thousand chariots following behind him, this is not because he is wise. If the gentleman eats only crude greens and drinks only plain water, this is not because he is foolish. It is just because of the circumstances. What is up to me is to cultivate my heart and thoughts, to make my virtue and good conduct abundant, to make my understanding and deliberation enlightened, and to live in the present age but focus my intentions on the ancients. And so, the gentleman respects what rests with himself and does not long for what rests with Heaven. The petty man sets aside what rests with himself and instead longs for what rests with Heaven. Since the gentleman respects what rests with himself and does not long for what rests with Heaven, every day he improves. Since the petty man sets aside what rests with himself and instead the factors in why the gentleman improves every day and the petty man loses ground every day are one and the same. The reason why the gentleman and petty man are so far apart from each other rest with these things. (17.118-135)
Among the features of Heaven, none are more dazzling than the sun and moon. Among the features of earth, none are more dazzling than water and fire. Among things, none are more dazzling than pearls and jade. Among human beings, nothing is more dazzling than ritual and yi. (17.187-191)
And so it is possible for a gentleman to suffer disgrace in terms of his circumstances, but it is not possible for him to suffer disgrace in terms of what is yi. It is possible for a petty man to have honour in terms of his circumstances, but it is not possible for him to have honour in terms of what is yi. (18.528-532)
People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. (23.1)
Someone asks: if people’s nature is bad, then from what are ritual and yi produced? I answer: In every case, ritual and yi are produced from the deliberate effort of the sage; they are not produced from people’s nature. (23.92-95)
In every case where people desire to become good, it is because their nature is bad. (23.134-135)
People desire to become good because their nature is bad. (23.142-143)
They can do it, but they cannot be made to do it.(23.286-287)
Let there be no day not spent on what is right. (27.468)
As for the worthies of ancient times, when they were as lowly as peasants or as poor as commoners, for food they had gruel that was not even sufficient, and for clothing they had coarse garments that were not even whole. Nevertheless, whatever was not in accordance with ritual, they would not advance, and whatever was not in accordance with yi, they would not accept, and they comfortably chose this behaviour. (27.613-619)
If you are constrained and forced to live in a violent state and there is no way to avoid it, then extol what is good about it, praise art is fine in it, speak of its strong points, and do not mention its shortcomings. (27.717-720)
There are five worst traits for people to have, and being a robber or thief is not among them. The first is having a heart with penetrating insight and using it for dangerous things. The second is carrying out deviant acts and doing so with resoluteness. The third is speaking falsely and arguing well. The fourth is memorising foul things and presenting them as broad learning. The fifth is following along with what is wrong and making it seem smooth (28.26-33)
When petty men form crowds, that is indeed cause for worry. (28.47)
Confucius was gazing intently at a waterway flowing eastward, Zigong asked Confucius, “Why is it that whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is sure to gaze intently at it?”
Confucius said, “When the waterway is large, it provides for the various living things in an all-encompassing fashion, without any ulterior motive—this resembles virtue. Its flow is toward sunken and low places, and even through curves and bends out is sure to follow this pattern—this resembles yi. Its gushing current is never depleted or exhausted—this resembles the Way. If someone opens a channel for it to go through, its response is as swift as an echo, and it rushes at crevasses a hundred fathoms deep without fear—this resembles courage. When it pours into a basin, it is sure to achieve a balanced, level state—this resembles following proper models. When it fills up a place, one does not need a levelling stick—this resembles adhering to correctness. Being soft and supple, it reaches into even minute spaces—this resembles keen discernment. By going into and out of it, one uses it to become fresh and clean—this resembles being transformed to goodness. Even through ten thousand turn, it is sure to head east—this resembles having settled intentions. For these reasons, whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is sure to gaze intently at it. (28.122-142)
Nowadays, some people’s learning has never even been as big as a pimple and yet, behaving as though they were perfected, they desire to be the teacher of others. (28.155-157)
To follow the Way and not one’s lord, to follow yi and not one’s father is the greatest conduct. (29.3-5)
A proverb states, “Follow the Way, not your lord. Follow yi, not your father.” (29.23-24)
Zilu asked Confucius, “Does a gentleman have worries?”
Confucius said, “When the gentleman has not yet succeeded, then he takes joy in his ideals, and when he has succeeded, then he takes joy in bringing good order to affairs. Thus, he has joy to the end of his life, without a single day of worry. As for the petty man, when he has not yet succeeded, then he worries that he will never succeed, and when he has succeeded, then he fears that he will lose it. Thus he has worry to the end of his life, without a single day of joy. (29.140-147)
The gentleman learns broadly and examines himself thrice daily, and then his knowledge is clear and his conduct is without fault. (1.9-11)
And so if you never climb a high mountain, you will not know the height of Heaven. If you never visit a deep ravine, you will not know the depth of the Earth. If you never hear the words passed down from the former kings, you will not know the magnificence of learning. 91.12-15)
No spirit-like state is greater than having transformed oneself with the Way. (1.25-26)
If you do not first have somber intention,
No brilliant understanding can there be.
If you do not first have determined effort,
No glorious achievements will you see
One walking both forks of a road goes nowhere.
One serving two lords is not viewed welcomely.
Eyes focused on two things at once are not sharp.
Ears tune to two things at once don’t hear clearly. (1.103-112)
Learning proceeds until death and only then does it stop. And so, the order of learning has a stopping point, but its purpose cannot be given up even for a moment. To pursue it is to be human, to give it up is to be a beast. (1.132-135)
In learning, nothing is more expedient than to draw near to the right person. (1.159-160)
Only if people approach you in the proper way should you receive them. If they do not approach you in the proper way, then avoid them. (1.189-191)
One who does not fully comprehend the proper kinds and classes of things, or who is not single-minded in pursuit of ren and yi, does not deserve to be called good at learning. Learning is precisely learning to pursue them single-mindedly. To depart from it in one affair and adhere to it in another is to be such as common people. (1.209-214)
The gentleman knows that whatever is imperfect and unrefined does not deserve praise. And so he repeatedly recites his learning in order to master it, ponders it in order to comprehend it, makes his person so as to dwell in it, and eliminates things harmful to it in order to nourish it. He makes his eyes not want to see what is not right, makes his ears not want to hear what is not right, makes his mouth not want to speak what is not right, and makes his heart not want to deliberate over what is not right. He comes to the point where he loves it, and then his eyes love it more than the five colours, his ears love it more than the five tones, his mouth loves it more than the five flavours, and his heart considers it more profitable than possessing the whole world. For this reason, power and profit cannot sway him, the masses cannot shift him, and nothing in the world can shake him. He lives by this, and he dies by this. This is called the state in which virtue has been grasped. (1.217-231)
When virtue has been grasped, only then can one achieve fixity. When one can achieve fixity, only then can one respond to things. To be capable both of fifty and of responding to things—this is called the perfected person. Heaven shows off its brilliance, Earth shows off its breadth, and the gentleman values his perfection. (1.232-236)
When you observe goodness in others, then inspect yourself, desirous of cultivating it. When you observe badness in others, then examine yourself, fearful of discovering it. If you find goodness in your person, then commend yourself, desirous of holding firm to it. If you find badness in your person, then reproach yourself, regarding it as calamity. And so, he who rightly criticises me acts as a teacher toward me, whole he who flatters and toadies to me acts as a villain toward me. (2.1-8)
If your exertions of blood, qi, intention, and thought accord with ritual, they will be ordered and effective. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be disorderly and unproductive. If your meals, clothing, dwelling, and activities accord with ritual, they will be congenial and well-regulated. If they do not accord with ritual, you will encounter dangers and illnesses. If your countenance, bearing, movements, and stride accord with ritual, they will be graceful. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be barbaric, obtuse, perverse, vulgar, and unruly. (2.38-47)
If their lives are without ritual,
Then people cannot survive.
If affairs are without ritual,
In them success does not thrive.
If state and clan are without ritual,
For them peace does not arrive. (2.48-53)
To lead others along in what is good is called “teaching”. (2.599)
To endorse what is right and condemn what is wrong is called “wisdom”. To cendorse what is wrong and condemn what is right is called “stupidity”. (2.62-64)
To be without fixity in one’s likes and dislikes is called “lacking constancy.” (2.69-70)
The methods for controlling the qi and nourishing the heart: For unyielding blood and qi, soften them with harmoniousness. For overly deep thinking, simplify it with easy goodness. For overly ferocious courage, reform it with proper compliance. For expedience-seeking hastiness, restrain it with regulated movements. For small-minded narrowness, broaden it with expansiveness. For excessive humility, sluggishness, or greed for profit, resist it with lofty intentions. For vulgarity or dissoluteness, expunge it with teachers and friends. For indolence or profligacy, illuminate it with the prospect of disasters. For simple-minded rectitude or scrupulous honesty, make it suitable with ritual and music, and enlighten it with reflection. In each method of controlling the qi, and nourishing the heart, nothing is more direct than following ritual, nothing is more important than having a good teacher, and nothing works with greater spirit-like efficacy than liking it with single-minded devotion. These are called the methods for controlling the qi and nourishing the heart. (2.78-94)
If one’s intentions are cultivated, then one will disregard wealth and nobility. If one’s concern for the Way and yi is great, then one will take kings and duke lightly. (2.95-97)
A saying goes, “The gentleman makes things his servants. The petty man is servant to things.” This expresses my meaning. If an action tires your body but puts your heart at ease, do it. If it involves little profit but much yi, do it. (2.98-102)
A good farmer does not fail to plant because of a drought, a good merchant does not fail to open shop because of losses, and the well-bred man and the gentleman are not lax in their pursuit of the Way because of poverty. (2.104-107)
If you attempt to exhaust the inexhaustible or pursue the limitless, then you can break your bones and rupture your tendons trying, but to the end of your life you will not succeed. If you have some stopping point, then even though a thousand li is far, whether slow or fast, first or last, how could you not fail to reach it? (2.135-140)
In matters of conduct, the gentleman does not esteem feats that are difficult but improper. In matters of argument, he does not esteem improper inquiries. In matters of reputation, he does not esteem improper fame. Only what is proper does he esteem. (3.1-4)
A saying goes, “In both cases the gentleman advances. In both cases the petty man falters.” (3.91-93)
Who can endure pollution from others when one’s own self is pure? (3.116-117)
If you grasp it, then you will attain it. If you let it go, you will lose it. If you grasp and attain it, then it will become easy. When it becomes easy, then you will act steadfastly. If you act steadfastly and do not let it go, then you will improve. If you improve and fully develop your endowment, moving forward for a long time and not returning to your beginnings, then you will be transformed. (3.150-156)
When you see something that may be desirable, be sure to consider forward and backward what may be undesirable in it. When you see something that may be beneficial, be sure to consider forward and backward what may be harmful in it. With both sides and reckon them thoroughly, and only then decide whether it is desirable or undesirable, worth adopting or worth rejecting. If you proceed thus, then you will reliable avoid falling into trouble. (3.208-215)
The fault is with themselves, but instead they seek it in others. How far off the mark they are. (4.85-86)
It is like the way the people of Yue are at home in Yue, and the people of Chu are at home in Chu—the gentleman is at home in what is graceful. They differ not because of endowment, nature, intelligence, and capabilities, but rather because of the measures by which they train and refine themselves. (4.165-170)
They began by changing their original substance and perfected themselves through cultivation. (4.199-201)
By birth, people are originally petty people. Without a teacher or the proper model, they will seek only benefit. (4.202-204)
The natural disposition of people is that for food they want meats, for clothes they want embroidered garments, for travel they want chariots and horses, and moreover they want the riches of surplus wealth and accumulated goods. Even if provided these things, to the end of their years they would never be satisfied; this is also the natural disposition of people. (4.244-249)
They are heroes for petty men. (7.48-49)
If one carries out such learning, then one is called a well-bred man. If one is enthusiastic and devoted to it, then one is a gentleman. If one truly comprehends it, then one is a sage. (8.171-173)
He dwells in poverty but is glorious, lives in seclusion but is joyful. (8.195-196)
Not having heard of it is not as good as having heard of it. Having heard of it is not as good as having seen it. Having seen it is not as good as knowing it. Kn owing it is not as good as putting it into practice. Learning arrives at putting it into practice and then stops because to put it intro practice is to understand it, and to understand it is to be a sage. (8.443-448)
Following teachers and proper models is something one gets from one’s dispositions, not something one receives from human nature. (8.477-479)
Practice and habituation are the means to transform human nature. (8.482-482)
Hence if people nw to be diligent about practice, be careful about habitation, and esteem accumulation and polishing, then they become gentlemen. If they I’ve in to their inborn dispositions and nature and do not sufficiently question and study, then they become petty men. (8.512-516)
As for music, everything that is not refined music is discarded. (9.228-229)
The gentleman is a third partner to Heave and Earth . . . if there were no gentleman, then Heaven and Earth would not be properly ordered, and ritual and yi would be without a unifying guide. (9.296-297, 298-300)
Their fondness for me will be like the way they are attracted to the fragrance of orchids or sesame. (9.508-509)
To be so noble as to be Son of Heaven; to be so rich as to possess the whole world; to have a reputation as being a sage king; to control all others while not being controlled by any other . . . to have abundant food and drink; to have grand music; to have lofty terraces and pavilions; to have vast gardens and parks . . . (11.348-350, 354-356)
That “right person” is such that he lives in the world of today, but his intentions are set on the ways of ancient times. (12.180-181)
For when compared with harming the good, it is better to benefit the perverse. (14.133-134)
In accumulating something that is minute, working at it for a time each month does not surpass working at it for a time each day, working at it for a time each season does not surpass working at it for a time each month, and working at it for a time each year does not surpass working at it for a time each season. In general, people like to be disdainful and scorning of small matters; only when big matters arrive do they then take sip and work at them. When they are like this, they simply will never surpass those who devotedly apply themselves to small matters. Why is this? It is because the occurrence of small matters is frequent, the days over which they spread are many, and their accumulation is big, whereas the occurrence of big matters is sparse, the days over which they spread are few, and their accumulation is small.
And so, he who makes good use of the day will become a true king. (16.330-343)
If the king of Chu has a thousand chariots following behind him, this is not because he is wise. If the gentleman eats only crude greens and drinks only plain water, this is not because he is foolish. It is just because of the circumstances. What is up to me is to cultivate my heart and thoughts, to make my virtue and good conduct abundant, to make my understanding and deliberation enlightened, and to live in the present age but focus my intentions on the ancients. And so, the gentleman respects what rests with himself and does not long for what rests with Heaven. The petty man sets aside what rests with himself and instead longs for what rests with Heaven. Since the gentleman respects what rests with himself and does not long for what rests with Heaven, every day he improves. Since the petty man sets aside what rests with himself and instead the factors in why the gentleman improves every day and the petty man loses ground every day are one and the same. The reason why the gentleman and petty man are so far apart from each other rest with these things. (17.118-135)
Among the features of Heaven, none are more dazzling than the sun and moon. Among the features of earth, none are more dazzling than water and fire. Among things, none are more dazzling than pearls and jade. Among human beings, nothing is more dazzling than ritual and yi. (17.187-191)
And so it is possible for a gentleman to suffer disgrace in terms of his circumstances, but it is not possible for him to suffer disgrace in terms of what is yi. It is possible for a petty man to have honour in terms of his circumstances, but it is not possible for him to have honour in terms of what is yi. (18.528-532)
People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. (23.1)
Someone asks: if people’s nature is bad, then from what are ritual and yi produced? I answer: In every case, ritual and yi are produced from the deliberate effort of the sage; they are not produced from people’s nature. (23.92-95)
In every case where people desire to become good, it is because their nature is bad. (23.134-135)
People desire to become good because their nature is bad. (23.142-143)
They can do it, but they cannot be made to do it.(23.286-287)
Let there be no day not spent on what is right. (27.468)
As for the worthies of ancient times, when they were as lowly as peasants or as poor as commoners, for food they had gruel that was not even sufficient, and for clothing they had coarse garments that were not even whole. Nevertheless, whatever was not in accordance with ritual, they would not advance, and whatever was not in accordance with yi, they would not accept, and they comfortably chose this behaviour. (27.613-619)
If you are constrained and forced to live in a violent state and there is no way to avoid it, then extol what is good about it, praise art is fine in it, speak of its strong points, and do not mention its shortcomings. (27.717-720)
There are five worst traits for people to have, and being a robber or thief is not among them. The first is having a heart with penetrating insight and using it for dangerous things. The second is carrying out deviant acts and doing so with resoluteness. The third is speaking falsely and arguing well. The fourth is memorising foul things and presenting them as broad learning. The fifth is following along with what is wrong and making it seem smooth (28.26-33)
When petty men form crowds, that is indeed cause for worry. (28.47)
Confucius was gazing intently at a waterway flowing eastward, Zigong asked Confucius, “Why is it that whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is sure to gaze intently at it?”
Confucius said, “When the waterway is large, it provides for the various living things in an all-encompassing fashion, without any ulterior motive—this resembles virtue. Its flow is toward sunken and low places, and even through curves and bends out is sure to follow this pattern—this resembles yi. Its gushing current is never depleted or exhausted—this resembles the Way. If someone opens a channel for it to go through, its response is as swift as an echo, and it rushes at crevasses a hundred fathoms deep without fear—this resembles courage. When it pours into a basin, it is sure to achieve a balanced, level state—this resembles following proper models. When it fills up a place, one does not need a levelling stick—this resembles adhering to correctness. Being soft and supple, it reaches into even minute spaces—this resembles keen discernment. By going into and out of it, one uses it to become fresh and clean—this resembles being transformed to goodness. Even through ten thousand turn, it is sure to head east—this resembles having settled intentions. For these reasons, whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is sure to gaze intently at it. (28.122-142)
Nowadays, some people’s learning has never even been as big as a pimple and yet, behaving as though they were perfected, they desire to be the teacher of others. (28.155-157)
To follow the Way and not one’s lord, to follow yi and not one’s father is the greatest conduct. (29.3-5)
A proverb states, “Follow the Way, not your lord. Follow yi, not your father.” (29.23-24)
Zilu asked Confucius, “Does a gentleman have worries?”
Confucius said, “When the gentleman has not yet succeeded, then he takes joy in his ideals, and when he has succeeded, then he takes joy in bringing good order to affairs. Thus, he has joy to the end of his life, without a single day of worry. As for the petty man, when he has not yet succeeded, then he worries that he will never succeed, and when he has succeeded, then he fears that he will lose it. Thus he has worry to the end of his life, without a single day of joy. (29.140-147)
May 16, 2019
A very historical book with works by Master Xun who was a Confucian philosopher and scholar during the Warring States period Of China (c. 310 BC-c.235 BC). This is definitely not a book to read in one sitting but one to come back to and reference whenever you want to gain insight into the history of, not only philosophy, but China as well. This book is filled with hidden gems of knowledge that otherwise would not be gleaned elsewhere. Xunzi goes over Confucian history, quotes from the Chinese classics, and references stories from Chinese history as well as writes mini-biographies on some major Chinese historical figures. The book mentions the great Kings and emperors of China, as well as some of the greatest Chinese philosophers out there. Not to mention the many philosophical questions that will cause one to ponder many a times! The only thing I could have asked for that would make this book better would be some illustrations to accompany the text. This big volume will definitely be used as a reference source for a long time to come.
April 13, 2019
There were fascinating chapters on ritual, the function of music, the relationship between names and the named, the innate badness of human nature, and heaven. However, the bulk of this long book is about how to be a good ruler in ancient China. This can only hold my interest for but so long since I am not trying to be a good ruler in ancient China. I found Mencius to be the more compelling interpreter of Confucius.
March 16, 2024
Xunzi is the third great Confucian after Confucius and Mencius. Contra Mencius, Xunzi finds human nature to be inherently bad, not inherently good (which appears to be the main reason why Xunzi became neglected in favor of Mencius through most of Confucian history). He explains this on the basis of definitions of Heaven and human nature: Heaven as "that which is accomplished without anyone's doing it and which is obtained without anyone's seeking it" (Chapter 17, p. 175 in Hutton's translation); and human nature as being "inborn dispositions" as opposed to deliberate effort. Goodness takes deliberate effort, whereas people's nature - their desires and feelings of hate and dislike - lead to that which is bad. Xunzi is quite explicit in describing how humans naturally desire the most flavorful food, the most beautiful music, etc., and that these natural desires must be appropriately regulated for society to function.
Human nature therefore stands in need of "the transforming influence of teachers and models and the guidance of ritual and yi" (ethics/virtue) (Chapter 23, p. 248). Ritual is that which ensures harmony by putting limits to people's desires through nurturing people's desires appropriately and dividing things among people (rank and status in all Confucian senses of the word - rulers, parents, etc.). Ritual is "a means of nurture" (Chapter 19, p. 202), rooted in three roots: life, the ancestors, and lords and teachers (p. 203).
Most of the rest of Xunzi is based on these basic principles and on elucidating the importance of ritual, virtue, learning, and true rulership. Much of this is similar to, though more complete than, Confucius and Mencius, and is often quite repetitive. Some of this, as with Mencius, also stands in contrast to those espousing institutional reforms without moral reform: and Xunzi, as Mencius, can appear naive in (most of the time) asserting that virtuous rulership will automatically bring prosperity, with little (but not no) attention to why bad things can still happen to good people. Xunzi therefore appears to be both more pragmatic than Mencius - in terms of dealing with human nature - while also being equally unpragmatic when it comes to dealing with realpolitik.
Human nature therefore stands in need of "the transforming influence of teachers and models and the guidance of ritual and yi" (ethics/virtue) (Chapter 23, p. 248). Ritual is that which ensures harmony by putting limits to people's desires through nurturing people's desires appropriately and dividing things among people (rank and status in all Confucian senses of the word - rulers, parents, etc.). Ritual is "a means of nurture" (Chapter 19, p. 202), rooted in three roots: life, the ancestors, and lords and teachers (p. 203).
Most of the rest of Xunzi is based on these basic principles and on elucidating the importance of ritual, virtue, learning, and true rulership. Much of this is similar to, though more complete than, Confucius and Mencius, and is often quite repetitive. Some of this, as with Mencius, also stands in contrast to those espousing institutional reforms without moral reform: and Xunzi, as Mencius, can appear naive in (most of the time) asserting that virtuous rulership will automatically bring prosperity, with little (but not no) attention to why bad things can still happen to good people. Xunzi therefore appears to be both more pragmatic than Mencius - in terms of dealing with human nature - while also being equally unpragmatic when it comes to dealing with realpolitik.
June 30, 2021
Having only ever heard of big names like Confucius and Mencius in regards to ancient Chinese philosophy, it was so interesting to read Xunzi (which is almost like commentary on the Analects of Confucius). Not much is known about the (purported) author, Xun Kuang (Xunzi is an honorific form of address). Historians disagree on his dates of birth and death, but he apparently held office during his travels, and he amassed at least a decent following. It's likely Xunzi wasn't written by him alone, but rather features contributions from some of his followers.
As for the content itself, it's fascinating to read Xunzi's thoughts after reading the Analects of Confucius and Mencius. Xunzi's thoughts more closely resemble Confucius' than those of Mencius, but they still deviate in certain areas. For example, Xunzi's blunt assessment of human nature (i.e., that it's inherently bad) isn't harsh, but rather comes off as more objective and logical, if a little cold. The point isn't to condemn, though; one of the overarching themes of Xunzi is the importance of learning. Honing one's education (in the form of studying the ways of the Sage kings) and cultivating the Way are emphasized throughout the whole work, along with an emphasis on following ritual and yi ("righteousness").
Of course, there were statements I agreed with and others I didn't (the antiquated, patriarchal ones especially), but either way, I enjoyed the intellectual stimulation, not to mention observing the thoughts of a Confucian scholar less popular in the West.
Eric Hutton did a great job with this translation, and I appreciated his notes where he made plain the uncertainty of certain meanings or when the text was corrupt and so his translation was "tentative." Sometimes, footnotes are more of a hindrance than help, but in this case, I found them to be an informative contribution to this weighty text.
As for the content itself, it's fascinating to read Xunzi's thoughts after reading the Analects of Confucius and Mencius. Xunzi's thoughts more closely resemble Confucius' than those of Mencius, but they still deviate in certain areas. For example, Xunzi's blunt assessment of human nature (i.e., that it's inherently bad) isn't harsh, but rather comes off as more objective and logical, if a little cold. The point isn't to condemn, though; one of the overarching themes of Xunzi is the importance of learning. Honing one's education (in the form of studying the ways of the Sage kings) and cultivating the Way are emphasized throughout the whole work, along with an emphasis on following ritual and yi ("righteousness").
Of course, there were statements I agreed with and others I didn't (the antiquated, patriarchal ones especially), but either way, I enjoyed the intellectual stimulation, not to mention observing the thoughts of a Confucian scholar less popular in the West.
Eric Hutton did a great job with this translation, and I appreciated his notes where he made plain the uncertainty of certain meanings or when the text was corrupt and so his translation was "tentative." Sometimes, footnotes are more of a hindrance than help, but in this case, I found them to be an informative contribution to this weighty text.
April 19, 2024
An excellent translation of an unfairly neglected figure (partly for the ludicrous reason that unlike Confucius [Kong fuzi] and Mencius [Mengzi], the Jesuits who introduced Chinese thought to Europe failed to give him a catchy Latinized name). I have been working with the translation and the original text, and although I differ in some details and approaches, I cannot say that I have caught the translator in any truly serious errors -- an unusual and pleasant surprise. His choice of words is sometimes a bit clumsy, but the sense is always clearly evident.
Xunzi is unfortunately best known for a somewhat distorted version of one of his main ideas, that "human nature is evil." A more exact translation would be closer to "human beings have an intrinsic tendency toward doing evil deeds," which is hardly disputable. However, Xunzi felt that it was a human duty to erect social structures that would lessen and combat this tendency, and that this was a task that any person could undertake if they only willed it to be so -- the man in the street could become a sage king if he set his mind to it. Mencius felt that human goodness was like a plant that grew naturally but needed care and cultivation; Xunzi felt that human goodness was like a dam that held back the waters of chaos, something artificial that people first realized was necessary, and then consciously planned, constructed, and maintained. The two opinions are more complimentary than contradictory, and both are ultimately highly optimistic. Evil is not inevitable, but can be defeated. Human beings hold their fate in their own hands, and whether they have a good society or not will be their choice and their responsibility.
Xunzi is unfortunately best known for a somewhat distorted version of one of his main ideas, that "human nature is evil." A more exact translation would be closer to "human beings have an intrinsic tendency toward doing evil deeds," which is hardly disputable. However, Xunzi felt that it was a human duty to erect social structures that would lessen and combat this tendency, and that this was a task that any person could undertake if they only willed it to be so -- the man in the street could become a sage king if he set his mind to it. Mencius felt that human goodness was like a plant that grew naturally but needed care and cultivation; Xunzi felt that human goodness was like a dam that held back the waters of chaos, something artificial that people first realized was necessary, and then consciously planned, constructed, and maintained. The two opinions are more complimentary than contradictory, and both are ultimately highly optimistic. Evil is not inevitable, but can be defeated. Human beings hold their fate in their own hands, and whether they have a good society or not will be their choice and their responsibility.
October 19, 2021
If the Analects are Charmander, Xunzi is Charizard. Terminally graduated Confucian thinking. Beautiful font. Pages are friendly to the notes you will (I did) take. It’s psychologically compelling, politically elegant, and the translation hints at something very sophisticated. I haven’t gotten to 100 books that have changed my life but this one is up there. Read it in the spring of 2018 and often return to it or intermittently or between gulfs of time.
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September 7, 2022Work got in the way of me finishing this book. The philosophy is very conservative in nature, the only chapter I really liked was Chapter 23 as well as Lines 380 to 395 on page 304, Lines 405 to 413 and Line 425 to 428 on page 305.
January 22, 2026
it makes me laugh to think about xunzi being a virtue ethicist for consequential reasons (the greatest mohist??).
anyway, this is a book about how king and scheming viziers should Just Be Normal or everyone will starve to death.
anyway, this is a book about how king and scheming viziers should Just Be Normal or everyone will starve to death.
June 3, 2022
Xunzi is superior to Mencius. His words are rational and practical.
October 2, 2022
very repetitive, seemed like they were trying to reach a word count at some points.
February 11, 2024
Found many confucian ideologies sitting with me long after reading.
October 1, 2014
This is not just any translation of the Xunzi; it is an edition accessible to the general public, closely imitating the poetry of the original text, and correcting the errors of past editions. It hits all the right notes and is bound to become the standard edition of the text for decades to come. If you are interested in Confucianism, you will find this book quite valuable and you will most likely wish that other Chinese classics received this amount of attention and talent. The translation quality makes this one of those few foreign classics that really is worth owning for yourself rather than borrowing from a library.
There is no better way to show the improvements Hutton has made to the Xunzi translation than by comparing it to previous efforts. Here is a section of chapter 1 in a previous translation by John Knoblock:
“There must be some beginning for every kind of phenomenon that occurs. The coming of honor and disgrace must be a reflection of inner power. <From rotting meat come maggots; decaying wood produces woodworms.&rt;” (The brackets indicate a half-blockquote in the original text, which is one of Knoblock’s ways to indicate a probable quotation.)
Here is Hutton:
“All the things and the kinds that come about / Surely have a point from which they start out. / Honor and disgrace that comes unto you / Surely reflects your degree of virtue. / In rotten meat bugs are generated. / In fish that’s spoiled maggots are created.”
The rhyme scheme is as found in the original classical Chinese! Most translations of the Chinese philosophy classics, with the notable exception of James Legge’s Laozi, do not attempt to reproduce ancient rhymes in anything like an acceptable way, but Hutton both tries and succeeds. The result conveys the author’s intent to teach the cosmic law of cause and effect in singsongy verse.
Hutton’s vocabulary is generally similar to Burton Watson, who translated several excerpts from the Xunzi quite well, with the occasional errors of a trailblazer. Here is Watson in the “Dispelling Obsession” chapter:
“These men with their limited understanding saw one corner of the Way and, failing to understand that it was only a corner, they considered it sufficient and proceeded to expound it in engaging terms.”
Here is Hutton:
“People of twisted understanding observe one corner of the Way and are unable to recognize it as such. So, they think it sufficient and proceed to embellish it.”
Swift, clear, and to the point. While Watson’s translation is generally good, Hutton has improved on it, most likely by thinking about how each paragraph of his text will be pored over by a generation of bleary-eyed undergraduates looking for something tough to chew on. Here, as it is throughout the book, the philosophical value of each statement is made blunt enough to trip up every reader, so that a large book that looks like a jumble of adages at first quickly takes on the qualities of a well-articulated worldview.
Here is one last comparison between all three translations, from the head of the infamous chapter “Human Nature is Evil”.
Watson: “Man’s nature is evil; goodness is the result of conscious activity. The nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit. If he indulges this fondness, it will lead him into wrangling and strife, and all sense of courtesy and humility will disappear.”
Knoblock: “Human nature is evil; any good in humans is acquired by conscious exertion. Now, the nature of man is such that he is born with a love of profit. Following this nature will cause its aggressiveness and greedy tendencies to grow and courtesy and deference to disappear."
Hutton: “People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Now people’s nature is such that they are born with a fondness for profit in them. If they follow along with this, then struggle and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein.”
In these three passages, the most obviously inaccurate translation is “aggressiveness” by Knoblock; the typical result of a tin ear. Watson has offered an overly smooth cultural translation with “courtesy and humility,” which cannot be justified by the text, and Knoblock has adopted precisely half of this for some reason. Hutton’s “yielding and deference” is what the text literally says. But Hutton always tries to open the door to accurate comprehension, and choices such as this, or the choice of translating “bad” instead of “evil”, should not be regarded as a poor compromise.
In short, this translation could not possibly be more thorough or more welcoming to new readers. I expect to see many more positive reviews of it soon.
[I received a review copy of the text from the publisher; I hope to place a review in a Chinese journal. I received no compensation.]
There is no better way to show the improvements Hutton has made to the Xunzi translation than by comparing it to previous efforts. Here is a section of chapter 1 in a previous translation by John Knoblock:
“There must be some beginning for every kind of phenomenon that occurs. The coming of honor and disgrace must be a reflection of inner power. <From rotting meat come maggots; decaying wood produces woodworms.&rt;” (The brackets indicate a half-blockquote in the original text, which is one of Knoblock’s ways to indicate a probable quotation.)
Here is Hutton:
“All the things and the kinds that come about / Surely have a point from which they start out. / Honor and disgrace that comes unto you / Surely reflects your degree of virtue. / In rotten meat bugs are generated. / In fish that’s spoiled maggots are created.”
The rhyme scheme is as found in the original classical Chinese! Most translations of the Chinese philosophy classics, with the notable exception of James Legge’s Laozi, do not attempt to reproduce ancient rhymes in anything like an acceptable way, but Hutton both tries and succeeds. The result conveys the author’s intent to teach the cosmic law of cause and effect in singsongy verse.
Hutton’s vocabulary is generally similar to Burton Watson, who translated several excerpts from the Xunzi quite well, with the occasional errors of a trailblazer. Here is Watson in the “Dispelling Obsession” chapter:
“These men with their limited understanding saw one corner of the Way and, failing to understand that it was only a corner, they considered it sufficient and proceeded to expound it in engaging terms.”
Here is Hutton:
“People of twisted understanding observe one corner of the Way and are unable to recognize it as such. So, they think it sufficient and proceed to embellish it.”
Swift, clear, and to the point. While Watson’s translation is generally good, Hutton has improved on it, most likely by thinking about how each paragraph of his text will be pored over by a generation of bleary-eyed undergraduates looking for something tough to chew on. Here, as it is throughout the book, the philosophical value of each statement is made blunt enough to trip up every reader, so that a large book that looks like a jumble of adages at first quickly takes on the qualities of a well-articulated worldview.
Here is one last comparison between all three translations, from the head of the infamous chapter “Human Nature is Evil”.
Watson: “Man’s nature is evil; goodness is the result of conscious activity. The nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit. If he indulges this fondness, it will lead him into wrangling and strife, and all sense of courtesy and humility will disappear.”
Knoblock: “Human nature is evil; any good in humans is acquired by conscious exertion. Now, the nature of man is such that he is born with a love of profit. Following this nature will cause its aggressiveness and greedy tendencies to grow and courtesy and deference to disappear."
Hutton: “People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Now people’s nature is such that they are born with a fondness for profit in them. If they follow along with this, then struggle and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein.”
In these three passages, the most obviously inaccurate translation is “aggressiveness” by Knoblock; the typical result of a tin ear. Watson has offered an overly smooth cultural translation with “courtesy and humility,” which cannot be justified by the text, and Knoblock has adopted precisely half of this for some reason. Hutton’s “yielding and deference” is what the text literally says. But Hutton always tries to open the door to accurate comprehension, and choices such as this, or the choice of translating “bad” instead of “evil”, should not be regarded as a poor compromise.
In short, this translation could not possibly be more thorough or more welcoming to new readers. I expect to see many more positive reviews of it soon.
[I received a review copy of the text from the publisher; I hope to place a review in a Chinese journal. I received no compensation.]
March 19, 2015
Xunzi was a philosopher who lived during the Warning states period and based his teachings off of Confucianism. He actually spent a good amount of his time defending Confucianism. He strongly supported ritual practices and education and did not believe that people are inherently good. The opposing school of thought was Mencius, who on the contrary believed that people are naturally good. Xunzi’s school is recognized as the highest developed school during the Warring States period and he gave his teachings in the form of essays, unlike other philosophers such as Kongzi and Mengzi who taught using little stories or brief statements.
My biggest attraction to Xunzi’s philosophy is that he stresses that good things are achieved by putting effort into what you want to accomplish. I strongly agree with him on that point. Though I have to admit that I get a sense of Kongzi’s style when I read this book, but I found the long essays to be a little less enjoyable to read than some of the shorter styles. He does a lot of the linking lists to get to his point. For example:
“To speak without being asked is what people call being presumptuous, and to speak two things when asked only one is what people call being wordy. Being presumptuous is wrong, and being wordy is wrong.”
I found it almost unappealing how he states the names of these actions as though he is of some special rank that gives his the right to tell others the titles. Im not a fan of this style when it is used continuously.
My biggest attraction to Xunzi’s philosophy is that he stresses that good things are achieved by putting effort into what you want to accomplish. I strongly agree with him on that point. Though I have to admit that I get a sense of Kongzi’s style when I read this book, but I found the long essays to be a little less enjoyable to read than some of the shorter styles. He does a lot of the linking lists to get to his point. For example:
“To speak without being asked is what people call being presumptuous, and to speak two things when asked only one is what people call being wordy. Being presumptuous is wrong, and being wordy is wrong.”
I found it almost unappealing how he states the names of these actions as though he is of some special rank that gives his the right to tell others the titles. Im not a fan of this style when it is used continuously.
August 21, 2015
could only find a translation of the first six books at my library. distinctions, human nature, class. this is definitely going over my head rn
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