Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India

by Venkat Dhulipala

This book examines how the idea of Pakistan was articulated and debated in the public sphere and how popular enthusiasm was generated for its successful achievement, especially in the crucial province of UP (now Uttar Pradesh) in the last decade of British colonial rule in India. It argues that Pakistan was not a simply a vague idea that serendipitously emerged as a nation-state, but was popularly imagined as a sovereign Islamic State, a new Medina, as some called it. In this regard, it was envisaged as the harbinger of Islam's renewal and rise in the twentieth century, the new leader and protector of the global community of Muslims, and a worthy successor to the defunct Turkish Caliphate. The book also specifically foregrounds the critical role played by Deobandi ulama in articulating this imagined national community with an awareness of Pakistan's global historical significance.

Genres: History, India, Pakistan, Nonfiction, Politics, Islam, Religion

544 pages, Kindle Edition

First published December 31, 2014

Reviews

[E.T. · Rating 5 out of 5]

"Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it."
This book had been lying with me for a couple of years and the recent "aborgation" of article 370 in J&K made me pick it up. Starting from Narendra Modi's campaign to become PM in 2013, I was greatly interested in the subject of what caused partition ? I try of trace the evolution of my thoughts in the past 6 years:-
a) As Indian children we read that the British played divide and rule and left. Reading 4 biographies in parallel in 2013 - Nehru, Patel, Jinnah and Gandhi - led me to believe that Jinnah was the villain in the class of Hitler and Stalin. Afterall he had said that he had created Pakistan with a private secretary and a typewriter. The Muslims didnt trust the Hindus and this was momentary madness that couldnt be reversed. Ok question answered.
b) The Islamic terror attacks in the West and Europe in 2015 led me to search for the causes. The European countries were liberal and secular afterall. Racism ? But the non-white-skinned non-Muslims were living peacefully. Everyone has grievances but surely the enlightened democracies of the West had enough scope and forums to address those. Why turn to violence ?
c) This led me to read more than a dozen books both by Muslim and non-Muslim authors and also listen to quite a few debates - notably on Sam Harris's podcast. Turns out the problem was with liberalism and secularism. And even if you consider a state which believes in pluralism (as opposed to secularism) like India, you have to consider the Muslim minority as a sub-nation with their own "civil" laws based on religion. And even a Gandhian plural state can exist only if the Muslims are a small minority.
d) But arent most of the Muslims peaceful ? I read one of the most important documents of our times - The Pew Survey of Islamic countries in which overwhelming majorities of Muslims living in Muslim majority countries think laws and rights should be Islamic. And for them democracy means just majoritarianism. And while they are peaceful - not proactively violent - their reactions to blasphemy, apostasy, freedom of speech, gender equality, "unIslamic" laws are very violent.
This nailed it and everything fit in. And this book ties up and arranges everything quite well.
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This book traces the politics of U.P. (and partition) from the provincial elections of 1937 to independence in 1947. The detailed discussions and debates among the U.P. Muslims - politicians and religious leaders are covered. As you might have guessed, NOT A SINGLE argument was made on secular / liberal grounds. Those favouring the Muslim League and those opposing partition purely used the context of Islam and what was permissible. It was almost as if secularism and liberalism are ideas from another planet. This is consistent with what I found on reading https://www.goodreads.com/review/show... - Not a single argument for the freedom of Kashmir said that it will be a liberal and secular state.
Surprisingly, there were a no. of arguments from Muslims opposing partition - entire India be converted to Islam aggressively, and safeguards be instituted to ensure that no law is passed if 2/3rds of Muslims deem it unIslamic. Ambedkar's book and his advice that Pakistan be accepted made sense.
Accordingly, India became a secular republic and Pakistan an Islamic state. It was always meant to be so. Also, it makes The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan by Jalal irrelevant. Even if we accept that the demand for Pakistan was just a bargaining counter, and lets say we avoided partition, India would have been a mess with a large body of Muslims who want to live in an "Islamic state".
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The future - It is true that some Muslims didnt vote for the Muslim League as is particularly evident from an analysis of the results of the 1946 provincial elections. One can only hope that the spiritual and political are separated and more Muslims learn to confine religion to the private sphere.
Recently, in a bid to criticise Modi, the left-liberals commented that there was no celebration by Muslims on criminalisation of triple-talaq. They forgot that this opposition to gender equality has different implications too. This is the 21st century after-all and how long must the world wait before we see an avowedly liberal and secular Muslim nation emerge ? Remember how Nehru passed thru the Hindu code bill almost immediately after independence. Respect him for that as a Hindu !
Just as "nationalism" is used to hound people today, "secularism" was used to hound people critical of minority religions till 2014. Truth and facts should be exempt from hounding and only if we can discuss honestly can we move towards reconciliation.
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Need I say - this is one of the most important books on Indian history, a must read for all policy-makers /politicians around the world and also ofcourse for history fans - thankfully it is also not a dry read.

[Arihant Pawariya · Rating 5 out of 5]

A work of painstaking research, this monumental account of the origins of Pakistan by Venkat Dhulipala is must read for those interested in the history of India-Pakistan partition history.

The author busts many myths. He delves into the literature of the 1940s northern India, particularly that of Uttar Pradesh and goes on to prove that Jinnah was no secular, not all Deoband Maulanas were against partition and Pakistan wasn't an accidental creation. It was certainly not a bargaining tool used by Jinnah to seek parity between Hindus and Muslims as eminent historians like Ayesha Jalal have written.

The idea of Pakistan was envisioned well and debated extensively. The idea was propagated by Muslim League and Ulemas in northern India and popularised for years through excellent use of Urdu press. The Muslims of Uttar Pradesh played a great role in delivering the Islamic State of Pakistan and fulfilling Jinnah's dream, first put forward by Iqbal in 1930. It is ironical then that many of these Muslims chose to stay back in India and those who did go to Pakistan (Muhajirs) were treated like second-class citizens.

Pakistan was thought of as a new Medina, the second Islamic state to be created 1300 years after the first one was established by Prophet Muhammad in Medina. Interestingly, the first comprehensive account backing the idea of two-nation theory was written by none other than Dr. Ambedkar who delivered his seminal work within months of Lahore resolution of 1940. He exhorted Hindus to accept Pakistan as it was in their best interests to do so. A united India according to Ambedkar would be ungovernable "sick man of Asia".

Why did the idea of Pakistan get such overwhelming traction in the Muslim community? Iqbal's quip "Mullah Ko Jo Hai Hind Mein Sajde Ki Ijazat Nadan Ye Samajhta Hai Ke Islam Hai Azad" comes to mind. For Muslims, now and then, a mere freedom to exercise one's religion isn't enough. Because Islam demands much more from its adherents. It demands all Muslims to live by Islamic rules. That is real Azaadi. 'Sajde ki ijajat' isn't enough.

This explains a lot why Muslim politics works the way it does. Dhulipala's book assumes immense significance in today's India because like it or not, Muslim question remains unsolved.

[Kaśyap · Rating 4 out of 5]

An important addition to the historiography of partition. It decisively destroys Ayesha Jalal’s thesis that tries to portray Jinnah as a reluctant Pakistani and that Pakistan was a result of a bargaining game gone awry. In fact, Mohammad Iqbal had a huge influence on Jinnah and shaped his views. The author here tries to show how Pakistan was a result of hegemonic Islamic ideology. He convincingly argues how Pakistan has always been imagined as an ideological Islamic state, as a "new Medina" and a vehicle for Islamic revival with pan Islamic ambitions. Pakistan was not only expected to assume the leadership of the Islamic world but was also expected to emerge as a state more powerful than "Hindu India", because its soul and spirit will be Islam.

With a main focus on the events in UP, the heartland of Pakistan movement, between 1937 to 1947, he shows the important role played by an influential section of Deobandi ulema led by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and the Aligarh students in the project to create this " new Medina". There is also a chapter that shows the important role that Ambedkar played in shaping the public perceptions of Pakistan and what its borders will be.

The one drawback is that the author doesn't go deep enough into the ideological roots of Muslim nationalism and separatism in India. Also how the Hindu reassertion after hundreds of years of politically and socially being subdued, influenced the Muslim nationalism.

[Nithesh S · Rating 4 out of 5]

It is a fascinating and well researched book. The author has managed to drive home the following important points in his book :
a) Pakistan was not merely a bargaining chip for Jinnah
b) Though many had different conceptions of Pakistan, it was basically an Islamist project
c) The clergy i.e. Ulema played a crucial role in influencing the electorate and the Pakistan debate
d) The economic viability of Pakistan was debated widely
e) Aligarh Muslim University was the nerve centre of intellectual support for the idea of Pakistan
f) Hostage theory of Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in India was a very lucrative idea used to generate support for the idea of Pakistan.

A highly recommended book for those interested in the history of partition of India.

[Aditya Dixit · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book will wake you with hard truth whether you like it or not.this book will remain best book on partition with ambedkar thought on Pakistan.
Venkat dhuliapala is one who speaks and write with historical evidences and has written partition history with Urdu materials showing why Indian Muslim rally around Pakistan idea.
He completely demolished bargaining counter theory of Ayesha jalal showing that partition is what they wanted or nothing less.
More uncomfortable fact is Indian Muslim who remain in India also supported Pakistan idea knowing that they will remain in Hindu majority of India. I was shocked to learn about hostage population theory and Muslim league endorsement.( This is imp. With regards to the citizen amendment act). Where giving minorities in Pakistan preference is hugely controversial in India only because Muslim appeasement politics in india which still get continues after partition massacre.
Given all evidences by dhuliapala, I conclude that 1. legacy of Islamic conquest lives in form of Pakistan and Bangladesh
2.demand for Pakistan and creating new Medina an islamist project was logical for Muslim community.
3. Partition was good for India as it was good riddance of Muslim league and huge conservative Muslim community which would have undermined undivided india.it would made majority Hindus minority in their own country.
4.this book will tell you why Pakistan behave the way it is now.they will imagine imaginary threats from India as their identity is anti-india that is anti-hindu.(Pakistan raison d'etre is Islamic Pakistan and strategic parity with India at any cost.)

This book will show you how to write history without any narrative and preconceived biases.violence of Partition has made indians to forgot what Muslim league and Indian Muslim stand was in run up to Independence.
Must read book for every serious Indian who wants answers regarding partition.

[Vikram Garg · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a towering work, in terms of its depth and originality.

The author delves into the intense debates about Pakistan in the Urdu press of the then 'United Provinces' (now Uttar Pradesh) of colonial India. He uses the notion of 'information order' in India society, first articulated by Amartya Sen to show that the Pakistan movement generated a flow of ideas, fears and aspirations among the Muslim communities of North India.

Mobilization for Pakistan wasnt based merely a last minute rallying call of 'Islam in danger'. Rather, it was inspired by more complicated visions of a strong Muslim power in the subcontinent which could help liberate the colonized Middle East, a new Medina, which could regenerate the entire Muslim world among others. Not only does Dhulipala introduce us to these various ideas of Pakistan, he shows how the Urdu press and the Islamic clergy were used to take these ideas to the Muslim masses of North India.

An important read for any student of colonial Indian history, especially those interested in the Pakistan movement.

[Anindya Basu · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book essentially turns the popular theory that , pakistan was created on a whim of Jinnah and machinations of british, on it's head. Creating a new medina began as a PhD thesis topic of Dr.Dhulipala and it shows in the book,the book being fantastically researched and being full of references.

[Nishu Thakur · Rating 5 out of 5]

A really good book if you want to understand about partition.

[Mayank Bawari · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fascinating book on the machinations of vociferous demand in UP that led to the partition of undivided India, and creation of new medina.

On some of the literature I’ve read on the subject, there are a few distinct forces at work here - the need for a British compliant state to stop the Russians, Amberkar’s good riddance theory, Islamic theocratic state & Gandhi’s flip flop inconsistent politics.

This books tells about the carving out of the Land of Sharia as imagined by the population in Muslim minority state of UP. The book starts from the 1937 provincial elections, and charts out how the Muslim League delivered a major upset and gave power to the thought of a Islamic Nation in the Indian subcontinent.

Although no one clearly knew what this thought was. Out of what final became Pakistan; there were theories on its actual boundaries, which sometimes included all of Punjab till Rohilkhand, Assam, and Hyderabad along with Moplahistan. Everyone in the Ulema imagined their own territorial grand territory while assuming that the rest of the >80% population has no opinion and can be moved around like a piece of furniture as only Muslim rights matter as the end of it. The case of a Muslim majority state like Kashmir had no choice as it a 90% Muslim majority while at the same time Hyderabad which was ~7% was also a Muslim state because “logic”. Muslim provinces were essentially to be ruled by Shariah with no other community holding any political power while at the same time needed special protection in minority states with sometimes half of the political representation and power.

With these we also get gems like these - “Kheiri flatly declared that 'had the Muslims in India not given wide freedom and protected the Hindus in India during their 800 years of rule, today there would have been no minority problem here’” & “Qureshi also claimed that it was due to Islam's impact that the Bhakti Movement arose in India’”. The latter could also be described “as Nazism’s impact laid the foundation of Nobel Winning Holocaust Literature”

A must read book and what popular support as drummed for a country up in provinces that knew that they’d not be the one living in it.

[Abdul · Rating 3 out of 5]

Venkat Dhulipala presents an overview of prevailing ideas regarding the formation of Pakistan and provides evidence to his claim that formation of Pakistan was strictly a U.P elite-led project for obtaining a 'Muslim homeland'. Better books, with better evidence (such as books by Francis Robinson's "Separatism Among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces' Muslims, 1860-1923"). Over time, my enthusiasm about this book has dampened because of its weak evidence.

[Ajay Thakur · Rating 5 out of 5]

Read it long time back. Brilliant book.

[Ninja · Rating 5 out of 5]

The partition of India like most episodes of modern India was blamed on Hindus by secular-liberal scholars. Ayesha Jalal, Faisal Devji etc. have done a secularist whitewashing consistent with genocide enabling narrative of the liberals of south asia.

As Pakistan 'made' its non-muslim minorities shrink from 21% to 3% in under a year by 1951 census, this negationism of sufi liberals needs busting. This book I believe is a stepping stone in that direction.

Sourced from actual movers and shakers of the Pakistan movement, this book shows that it was indeed a mass movement. Economic, geo-political, theological justifications were given for and canvassed among the voters.

Thoroughly researched book.

[yoursbibliophilic · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book “Creating a New Medina“, gives a good overview of mindset, setup and need for the creation of Pakistan. This book tries to address the issue that are normally spoken about Jinna that he wanted to get the rights for Muslims in India, ended up trading it with a real estate. “This book challenges these fundamental assumptions regarding the foundations of Pakistani nationalism and questions the current understanding of its post-colonial identity crisis.” ( Loc:368-370 ) Intensity of this book could be gauged by the time taken for writing the book which is about 11 yrs. His research is based on archival research rather than other scholarly works. The evidences provided clearly indicates, ” the Lahore Resolution set in motion rich debates in which views regarding Pakistan were articulated, evaluated, challenged and wrestled over in the public sphere.” ( Loc: 10041-10042 ) and Pakistan did not come to existence from ex nihilo.

The main questions that are addressed in this book is, was Pakistan a bargaining chip for rights for Muslims as a last resort? What is the role of Muslim madrasa and Indian Muslims in creating the Pakistan? “There is a general consensus among historians of the Partition that the Lahore Resolution marks the official starting point of the ML’s struggle for Pakistan.” ( Loc:2731-2732 ) to which even author agrees. However I think as indicated by J Sai Deepak in the book “India, Bharath and Pakistan” , the idea of Pakistan was there from the time Mughals lost there power. Probably the fight might not be on the name of “Pakistan”, but to create a Dar-ul-islam from Dar-ul-harb that’s what land of pure or Pakistan is.

The thoughts that provokes one who read this book is "(was ) to partition India so that both the communities could develop freely and fully according to their own genius.” ?( Loc:3987-3988 ) or was it an sinister plot of following the sunnah where Muslim league will do a hijrat to new medina just like hijrat of Mohammad to medina which provided a base for the eventual victory of Islam in Arabia, similerly ML (new ghair), would start from Pakistan (new medina) to pave the way for the triumphal return of Islam as the ruling power over the entire subcontinent, thus fulfilling the prophesy of gazaw-a-hind “It was narrated that Abu Hurairah said: "The Messenger of Allah promised us (a) battle expedition (in) India. If I live to see that, I will expend myself and my wealth in it. If I am killed, I will be one of the best of the martyrs, and if I come back, I will be Abu Hurairah Al-Muharrar.'" (Grade Daif) Sunan an-Nasa'i 3173

Even the major Muslim critiques against the idea of Pakistan like Sajjad, Manglori and Seoharvi as shown in chapter 5, were against creation of Pakistan because they felt Hindu India could ban proselytization thus stopping the islamization of India and not for the love of India. Wondering both for & against Pakistan people have the same goal, but the approach is different.

" The book consists of eight chapters besides an Introduction, an Epilogue and a Conclusion.
Chapter 1 explores the divisions that developed in U.P. Muslim politics in the aftermath of the Government of India Act of 1935 that introduced a limited democracy in British Indian provinces while maintaining British control at New Delhi.
Chapter 2 examines the contest between the Congress and Muslim League for the hearts, minds and votes of the U.P. Muslims following the collapse of attempts at forming coalition government in U.P. and consequently charts the process of the ML’s rise as the sole representative organization of the Indian Muslims. In this regard, it explores the developing relationship between the ML leadership and an important section of the Deobandi ulama that was critical for the former’s rising prestige in U.P.
Chapter 3 examines the public debates that were inaugurated on the issue of Pakistan and particularly highlights the hitherto underappreciated but seminal role played by B. R. Ambedkar in defining the terms of this public debate. It also charts Jinnah and the ML’s response to Ambedkar’s challenge in the context of growing public clamour for clarifications regarding Pakistan.
Chapter 4 specificaly examines the thinking of the U.P. Muslim League leadership on Pakistan and looks at how the idea of Pakistan was articulated in the localities of U.P. by them as well as local ML functionaries as they built up support for this ‘ideal goal’ of the Indian Muslims.
Chapter 5 introduces detailed public critiques of Pakistan made by ‘Nationalist Muslims’ including ulama from Deoband through pamphlets, columns of the Urdu press, and in public meetings held across the towns and localities of the province.
Chapter 6 tracks the impact of public debates regarding Pakistan on the general public by analysing a series of articles sent in by readers on this issue that were published in the Urdu bi-weekly newspaper Madina in 1942-43. Chapter 7 analyses Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani’s vision of Pakistan as a new Medina and highlights his critical contribution to the success of the ML’s election campaign during the 1945–46 elections.
Chapter 8 analyses election campaigns of both ML and the Congress during these elections that were widely seen as a referendum on Pakistan and demonstrates how they further clarified the stakes involved in Pakistan’s creation. " ( Loc:769-787 )

[Dixit · Rating 4 out of 5]

In this well researched book Venkat Dhulipala describes the numerous efforts and counter-efforts behind creation of Pakistan. It mainly covers the decade before independence. The author demolishes one of the dominant argument that Pakistan as a nation was 'not sufficiently imagined' and Jinnah on purpose left the idea 'ambiguous' with the aim to use it as a 'bargaining chip' to acquire more and more safeguards for Muslims in undivided India.

Dhulipala points towards vibrant discourse in early 1940s on the idea of Pakistan especially following the ML's Lahore Resolution 1940. Some of the most notable contributions were that of Dr BR Ambedkar (Thoughts on Pakistan, 1940), Jinnah, INC leaders, Deobandi ulema like Madani, Thanawi, Usmani and others. Besides lively Urdu press in UP took the ideas on Pakistan / its possible consequences to the grassroots.

United Provinces (present day Uttar Pradesh) though a Muslim-minority province was at the forefront of Pakistan Movement and it is where demand of Pakistan was very popular among common Muslims. The author describes the evolution of alliance between ML led by Jinnah and a section of Deobandi Ulema led by Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanawi. The prime reason behind the enthusiasm of ulemas was ideological - the creation of an Islamic state - a new Madina. Besides it would liberate Muslims from the hegemony of the Hindu majority.

The author also emphasizes that Pakistan as an idea didn't just sprang up in 1940 Lahore Resolution. The Two Nation Theory i.e Hindus and Muslims being two separate nations - has been part of conservative Islamic thought for long as evident from thoughts of Ahmad Sirhindi (16th century), Shah Waliullah (18th century), Syed Ahmed Khan (19th century). Deobandi ulema supporting ML went upto times of Prophet to legitimize the principle. Also the section of Deobandi ulema supporting INC at the end gave in to 'right of self determination' of Muslims admitting Islam as basis of nationhood. Deobandi ulema irrespective of which side they supported were firm believers in Pan-Islamism and many were zealous participants in the Khilafat movement.

The zealous students of AMU who acted as party's foot-soldiers, and Deobandi ulema who provided strong theological backing to the idea of Pakistan made up for the rampant factionalism among ML ranks. In 1946 elections which were widely seen as a referendum on Pakistan, ML captured all the Muslim constituencies in the central assembly in addition to its spectacular performance in provinces. It sealed the fate in favour of Pakistan.

[Kanav · Rating 3 out of 5]

Interesting thesis and arguments though the author spends a lot of space over tangential figures. It gives a different view from great man history of partition though its hard to assess the relevance of some figures mentioned in copious details

[Ishan Sharma · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent, comprehensive, monumental book on the fascist ideology which animated the Pakistan movement. We must make sure to learn from the past, so that catastrophic social divisions such as Partition never happen again.