Wu Zhao: China's Only Female Emperor

Library of World Biography

by N. Harry Rothschild

This new entry in the Longman Library of World Biography series offers the compelling story of Wu Zhao - one woman's unlikely and remarkable ascent to the apex of political power in the patriarchal society of traditional China. Wu Zhao, Woman Emperor of China is the account of the first and only female emperor in China's history. Set in vibrant, multi-ethnic Tang China, this biography chronicles Wu Zhao's humble beginnings as the daughter of a provincial official, following her path to the inner palace, where she improbably rose from a fifth-ranked concubine to becoming Empress. Using clever Buddhist rhetoric, grandiose architecture, elegant court rituals, and an insidious network of "cruel officials" to cow her many opponents in court, Wu Zhao inaugurated a new dynasty in 690, the Zhou. She ruled as Emperor for fifteen years, proving eminently competent in the arts of governance, deftly balancing factions in court, staving off the encroachment of Turks and Tibetans, and fostering the state's economic growth.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, China, Biography, Feminism, Medieval, Royalty

256 pages, Paperback

First published December 28, 2007

About the author

Norman Harry Rothschild was an eminent scholar of Tang Dynasty China.

While a history professor at the University of North Florida, he authored two books, a biography of Wu Zetian entitled Wu Zhao, China's Only Female Emperor (Pearson-Longman, 2008) and Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers (Columbia University Press, 2015). In addition to these books, he wrote, translated, and edited dozens of scholarly articles that appeared in Italian, Korean, Chinese, and English journals, and lectured across the US, the UK, and China. Shortly before his death, Rothschild finished a third book, The World of Wu Zhao (Anthem Press, 2023). He also completed a collection of short stories.

Rothschild was a Fulbright scholar at Peking University in 2000–2001 and he is the sole American to serve as President of the Wu Zetian Research Society in China.

Reviews

[John Mosley]

N. Harry Rothschild examines the life of Wu Zhao in his biography Wu Zhao China’s Only Woman Emperor, in which he weaves together history and legend into a coherent account of Wu Zhao’s rise to power and rule over the Tang Empire from 684-705 C.E. He suggests that Wu Zhao was both a product and a proponent of the cosmopolitan cultural milieu that emerged from the melding of northern pastoralist culture with the Han culture of China proper and the influx of foreign influences from Central Asia. Furthermore, Wu Zhao’s singular example of a woman attaining the highest tier of Chinese government demonstrates that Chinese patriarchy was not inviolable, and that entrenched customs could be mitigated given appropriate geopolitical circumstances and a determined individual capable of navigating the byzantine politics of Tang Dynasty China. Rothschild argues that despite her often brutal methods, Wu Zhao proved both competent and successful as Emperor; she played a pivotal role in the development of East Asian Buddhism, was a patron of the arts, and sought to elevate the social position of women.
Rothschild draws from an impressive array of sources in constructing his narrative of Wu Zhao’s life, providing a holistic and nuanced biography that contains both the historical particulars of her life as well as the accretion of myth and legend surrounding her. Three of the main texts are official court histories penned during the subsequent Song Dynasty; while they are invaluable sources of information, Rothschild freely admits the bias of these historians who had political incentives to vilify Wu Zhao in accordance with contemporary mores and values, which were far more conservative than in the earlier Tang Dynasty. Rothschild also draws from Tang documents, edicts, essays, and memorials, which he maintains are equally problematic due to their favorable slant toward Wu Zhao. References to local histories and popular legends, many of them supernatural in nature, further supplement and enrich his account. These sources shed insight into how Wu Zhao was viewed by the peasantry as well as the cunning way in which she cultivated and exploited popular perceptions by disseminating many of these fictive stories in order to legitimize her rise to power and subsequent reign as Emperor. Rothschild remains admirably objective throughout the work, highlights contrary perspectives when necessary, and clearly expresses his own conclusions.
Rothschild states that, “Multi-ethnic and cosmopolitan, Tang China was perfectly suited for the ascent of a historical anomaly like Wu Zhao. ” He suggests that the long rule of northern China by steppe nomads led to cultural diffusion between the nomadic pastoralists and the settled agrarian Han Chinese, which due to the much freer lifestyle enjoyed by women in steppe culture, caused the male dominated Han Chinese to relax certain reservations concerning the proper role of women in society. Thus, women in the Tang Dynasty obtained advanced legal status and were newly enabled to escape sequestering within the home and interact freely with men in the public sphere. Rothschild is careful to insist that this was not a full enfranchisement, and that male dominance and patriarchy was by no means abolished, merely softened.
Trade contacts with Central Asia allowed for the importation of new goods, customs, and ideologies, the most significant of which was the Buddhist faith. Rothschild suggests that Buddhism was instrumental in binding together the Central Asian and Chinese subjects of the Tang Empire, providing a venue through which otherwise dissimilar peoples could find common ground and foster mutual understanding. Buddhism proved much more accessible to women than the traditional Confucian subservience long entrenched within China proper. Many Buddhist deities were represented with female forms. Buddhist convents swelled their ranks with female nuns and perhaps most importantly, the tenants of the faith held that women too could find eternal salvation. Together, the moderating influences of steppe cultural values and the higher esteem of women by Buddhism created an atmosphere which was much more receptive to a woman seeking the zenith of Chinese political authority.
Rothschild asserts that this emerging Tang cosmopolitanism would not have been enough to set Wu Zhao on the throne without her innate qualities and good fortune. He states, “Her unique compatibility… would have been meaningless were it not complemented by her cold-blooded willpower, unslakeable ambition, [and] unrivalled political acumen… ” Her mixed Chinese and Central Asian ethnicity, broad education in Buddhist and Confucian traditions, and faculty for court intrigue and politics all served her well in her aspirations. Furthermore, good fortune supplemented her talents. She was aided by the fact that her father had enjoyed the favor of Emperor Taizong and her mother was capable of educating her. Her beauty was a great asset as well, for without her feminine charms she would not have been able to become a consort to Emperor Taizong, and therefore never would have become Gaozong’s Empress and positioned herself to rule after him.
Wu Zhao’s open rule clearly demonstrates that Chinese patriarchy was not an absolute barrier to a woman seeking to rule as Emperor. Rothschild states, “Her consummate skill with language shows that tradition was not unchanging and inviolable, but rather a plastic medium. ” He depicts Wu’s ascent as a constant and cautious probing against established custom prohibiting women from openly entering politics. She expanded and capitalized when the opportunity presented itself, and likewise retracted and consolidated her position when necessary. Wu Zhao’s assistance of Emperor Gaozong with the Feng and Shan sacrifices magnified her visibility and accustomed the populous to her open sharing of power. Her manipulation of Daoist sentiment in assuming the title of Celestial Empress in 674, the manner in which she justified wielding power during her husband’s illness by portraying herself as a pious Confucian wife, and her later patronage of Buddhism to buttress her rule all clearly display her genius in twisting existing customs to further her agenda.
Rothschild freely admits that Wu Zhao was often ruthless and brutal in building and maintaining her powerbase, but concludes that she served the Tang Empire well as its ruler. Wu Zhao maintained the empire’s boarders against Turkish expansion, reclaimed control of the Silk Road, and put down minor rebellions easily with no major uprisings. Her economic and commercial policies led to increased prosperity throughout the empire, which is reflected by the large increase in population during her reign. The last factor in Rothschild’s assessment was her patronage of the arts and scholarship, which resulted in numerous additions to Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist texts as well as new modes of poetry and painting. The construction of monumental works of architecture such as the no longer extant Heavenly Pivot, Buddhist statues, and Bright Halls conveyed the magnificence of the age to the citizens of the Tang Empire. Perhaps Wu Zhao’s rule can best be understood as something akin to the enlightened despotism of Enlightenment Europe, by which staunchly autocratic rulers sought to promote the arts and culture while maintaining a firm grasp on the reins of power.
Wu Zhao China’s Only Woman Emperor suggests that Wu Zhao played an important role in the development of East Asian Buddhism, which seems certain given the reciprocal nature of the relationship and her ardent patronage of the faith. Buddhism had attained widespread acceptance and economic power by the time of her rule. She was shrewd enough to embrace every sect of Buddhism without alienating the others in order to maintain the broadest base of support Wu Zhao constructed temples, hosted Buddhist festivals, and financed translation projects; this goodwill was reciprocated with Buddhist endorsement of the legitimacy of her rule. Buddhism was made an official religion of China in 694, legitimizing the faith that had aided her in her ambitions. Wu Zhao’s elevation of Buddhism had the dual purpose of marginalizing the importance of Daoism, which served to diminish the association of Daoism with the previous ruling Li family and enhance her own standing.
Rothschild states that Wu Zhao sought to enhance the social position of women. One such example he provides is her edict to change the titles of Imperial consorts to make them sound more bureaucratic and less degrading. Another example that Rothschild suggests was her, “most enduring and efficacious decree. ” was her edict that increased the length of mourning for one’s mother to the same as that of the father. It is significant that in the years following her death women actively sought power within the inner court, though none had the same success as Wu Zhao who evidently was a tough act to follow .
Rothschild presents a convincing argument for the reason Wu Zhao was able to attain power, and clearly explicates her success as a ruler and her lasting significances. The cosmopolitan Tang culture was uniquely suited to an unconventional female ruler, though it was her own ambition and ability that made the possibility a reality. Wu Zhao ruled well, which is evident by the empire’s population growth, successful staving off of Turkish incursions, and cultural flourishing. Furthermore, Wu Zhao played a pivotal role in the development of East Asian Buddhism and sought to improve the social standing of women. As the only woman to have ruled openly as Emperor of China, she proved that entrenched customs can be circumvented by the willing and able.

[Josh Keener · Rating 4 out of 5]

A fascinating deep dive into Tang Dynasty culture and the confluence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daosim written in very delicious English that will surely expand anyone’s vocabulary.

[library ghost (farheen) · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was a great read. The reign of Wu Zhao or Wu Xetian is my favourite part of Chinese history. It's endlessly fascinating. She reminds me a good deal of Agrippina, another figure I generally admire.

Quite sad that she was the only woman in Chinese royal history to have both the supreme title and the supreme powers. The rest, even formidable figures like Ci Xi never managed to cross the bridge between Dowager Empress and/or reagent to a fully fledged Emperor and that is our loss to bear.

[Andrew · Rating 4 out of 5]

I read this book for my World History to 1500 class at Grand Valley State University. The professor was Chinese and obviously had us read it because he felt some nationalism in it. I think Wu Zhao (more commonly known as Wu Zetian) provides a great insight into Chinese history. I learned so much about the early Tang Dynasty, gender relations in China, and much more. Wu Zhao arose to power, primarily by killing or banishing those who opposed her and did not demonstrate supreme loyalty. Although she was merciless in doing so, she was extremely politically smart. I really liked how Rothschild wrote the biography, and hope he writes more books on topics I find more interesting.

[Ron Me]

Although written at High School level, this is the best book I've read to date on Dynastic China---it gives an overview of the Tang/Zhou dynasties, not just imperial politics but relations with the outside world, popular life, religion, a whole host of areas, done with proper historical research and without the prejudices and lies of Chinese authors. Highly recommended.

[Lauralee · Rating 5 out of 5]

Wu Zhao is one of China’s most famous historical women. Her greatest accomplishment is that she was the only female emperor in China. This biography depicts Wu Zhao’s rise to power by using politics and religion to become the emperor. It also shows that while Wu Zhao was deeply flawed, and at times ruthless, she was a capable and adept politician that managed to reign for over a decade.

Out of all the biographies that I have read on Wu Zhao, I found this biography to be the most balanced. N. Harry Rothschild examines her negative reputation that was written by scholars centuries after Wu Zhao had reigned to show the reader her true character. She was a woman who held a grudge against her enemies, who was jealous of her female rivals, and greatly disliked her in-laws relatives. However, she most likely did not kill her daughter as later historians accused her of. She also was a smart political partner of her husband Emperor Gaozong. She managed to hold his devotion and love for the rest of his life.

This biography shows that Wu Zhao was reluctant in conducting state affairs and only did so when her husband was ill and she wanted to help him through a political crisis. N. Harry Rothschild also explains that unlike what previous historians have said about Wu Zhao, she did not control her husband. Rather, her husband always made the last decision. I found it interesting that Emperor Gaozong found his sons to be unsuitable for the throne, and thought his wife was the most suitable ruler. In fact, Emperor Gaozong wanted Wu Zhao to be the emperor after him! The author shows that Wu Zhao was a better politician than her own sons because when she is eventually ousted from power and her son takes the throne, her son cared only to live a life of luxury and indulgence and took very little interest in the country.

Overall, this biography shows Wu Zhao’s significance in Chinese history. She was a woman who helped spread Buddhism in a Confucian country. She promoted arts and literature. She helped bring women into state ceremonies and promoted talented women to help her with administering the country.Thus, this biography shows Wu Zhao was a woman that had an eye to spot talented people, a bold leader who had a keen sense of political acumen, and a fierce ambition. N. Harry Rothschild explains why Wu Zhao was China’s only female emperor and why there was never any Chinese empress that took the throne after her.

[Olivia · Rating 4 out of 5]

Wu Zhao. Amazing Woman. Fiercely intelligent, competent, calculating, and crafty. She made her way as a merchant's daughter to being one of the many (these mother fuckers had somewhere upwards of 120) to Empress, and finally Emperor in her own right. The sole woman Emperor in all of China's history. And this was in the 7th century.

She had this grasp for language and rhetoric, which helped carve her path, that is rather impressive. She implemented a lot of changes that did lead women, minorities, and the non-nobility to positions of more influence (though some modern-day critics say she didn’t do enough, to which I would say it’s the 7-fucking hundreds --she did all she could. But also ofc… a woman deemed to be "not enough" by critics, what's new?). But she was pretty ruthless to her enemies or those who would conspire against her.

She gets a bad rap throughout Chinese history, because as I learned while learning about Wu Zhao, the Confucians were sexists AF. Most of her progress was immediately undone after her reign (sound familiar? Hatshepsut, I'm talking to you). Most of the annals of Chinese history, most written many many years after her reign, depict her as a monster to try and discredit her. However-- some of those stories get pretty wild and are actually kind of fun to read: smothering her own baby to frame the then Empress, so she could gain favor; once she did gain favor, her amputating the former Empress and one concubine's arms AND legs, then letting them bleed out into a vat of wine she threw them in; and many other accusations like mincing and pickling enemies and grinding their bones into pepper dust. METAL, am I right?

So while a lot of early Chinese histories grossly exaggerated, there is plenty of evidence that Wu Zhao was pretty merciless to her enemies. But had quite the political acumen.

As far as Rothchild's narrative goes, learned a lot about gender roles, the yin and yang of it all (this is where a lot of Wu Zhao's finessing of language [and religion!] comes in to play. He also does a great job of weaving in the complex religious/philosophical hierarchies and impacts as they are essential to understanding the ebbs and flows of dynastic change.

[Orangetails · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book was amazing. It described Wu Zhao's life nearly completely (no book can fully capture every detail of a person's life), and filled in the gaps with historical context and content. It's richly detailed, sensitive to rumors but strict in adherence to fact, and covered all aspects of her life and subsequent reign. Truly worth the read for any Chinese history scholar.

[liv!]

*read for history of asia class *

[Joshua Spotts · Rating 4 out of 5]

A fantastic and well written biography of the rise and fall of Wu Zhao and her short-lived Zhou dynasty.

[Dillon · Rating 4 out of 5]

Really good but a bit long winded. The author really likes to use large words for no other reason then to use large words.