I think it’s at this level of depth that philosophy should be taught to all teenagers. The book gives a fun, somewhat easy, and interesting introduction to the greatest philosophical ideas of the west. It starts with the pre-Socratic era and stretches to Nussbaum in the 2100-century.
I was particularly struck by the philosophy of some. My rendition is obviously extremely light-weight and very much open to criticism.
--
Socrates had an immense curiosity and his humbleness to question assumptions led to great wisdom.
Plato came up with the Similie of the Line. There are four levels of this.
Using 'Beauty' as an example.
At the lowest level is the Imitation of Beautiful Entities (e.g., art, reflections, shadows, etc.).
At the second level are the Individual Beautiful Entities (e.g., the actual object the art depicts).
At the third level is the Concept of Beauty.
At the highest level is Superform, the Form of all Forms, meaning in this case, the 'Form of Beauty'.
Aristotle's moral philosophy of virtue. There are some traits we should cultivate. These are are "in accordance with the golden mean of moderation". For example, if we're faced with danger, we can either act with excess (fear), disregard it completely (foolhardiness), or act with moderation (courage). He gives further examples of these virtues. The golden mean of moderation is also realized through trial and error.
The Stoics realized that there are things in the world we can change and things we cannot. Our power lies in focusing on what we can change and accept what we cannot. This leads to wisdom, excellence and happiness (or equanimity?)
Spinoza equated nature with God. Everything is nature and the expression of God. This is called pantheism.
Kant distinguished between the phenomenal world (the world known by the human mind), and the noumenal world (the world impenetrable by the human mind).
Amongst other things, he also created a moral philosophy of consistency. This is what is called the categorial imperative. In short, we are to act to one another with (1)dignity and (2)universality. For example; I can't steal because that means I (1)don't respect what is yours and I don't want (2)others to steal from me. The counter-argument is sometimes context demands flexibility. E.g., lying to save someone's life.
Kierkegaard had an existential philosophy of not concocting existence with abstractions (thoughts, language, etc.)
I don't know if I necessarily agree with (William) James, but I found his Theory of meaning to be stimulating. Essentially, if two different ideas have the same practical consequences then there is no difference of meaning between them.
Dewey wrote about his theory of knowledge. Through education we enhance our thoughts and become better problem-solvers. Through education, therefore, we learn to delay our instinctual responses and act more intelligent in our environment.
"Thoughts that do not pass into actions that rearrange experience are useless thoughts. (The same if true of philosophies)" (Palmer, 2020, p. 348)
Wittgenstein said "The limits of my language are the limits of my world".
I found this sentence to be profound and wanted to include it here.
--