The Emperor in the Roman World

by Fergus Millar

This book offers a large scale reassessment of the function of Roman emperor over three centuries (from Augustus to Constantine) and of the social realities of this exercise of power. Concentrating on the patterns of communication between the emperor and his subjects, the author shows that such communications were normally initiated by the subjects – whether grouped in cities or other associations, or individually and that the emperor fulfilled his role primarily by making responses to them or giving decisions or verdicts between them.

The book casts new light on a number of detailed historical questions such as the sources of the emperor's wealth and the ways he spent it; the imperial residences and the mobility of the court; and the relatively small and simple entourage that the emperor needed to perform his functions. But above all, it emphasizes two major historical themes: the steady detachment of the emperor from the republican institutions of the city of Rome; and the way in which relations between Emperor and Church were shaped by the emperor's long-standing relations with cities, temples and associations in the pagan world.

Drawing on a wide range of evidence, from literature and legal writings to inscriptions and papyri, the main text can be read without any knowledge o f Latin or Greek.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Ancient History, Roman History, Ancient

656 pages, Paperback

First published April 1, 1977

About the author

Sir Fergus Millar was a British historian and Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus, Oxford University. Millar numbers among the most influential ancient historians of the 20th century.

Reviews

[Lori · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is still considered an important book (first written in 1977, a new afterword in 1991 which discusses later finds and research). Given how much new information has been uncovered in the last 30 years, that's a long time. Reading later books I can see how influential this book has been. (The Roman World is from Augustus to Constantine, a little over 300 years.)

This book is about the emperor inside the empire, not his military or diplomatic roles, or his role in moving grain, oil, etc. around the empire. Millar's thesis (which has been generally accepted) is that the emperor served a passive role. Others (cities, regions, religious groups and individuals) would petition him and he would respond. This was done orally in front of the emperor himself by a member of the group. A text would also usually be produced. This took up several hours almost every day. A very few persons were allowed to write directly to the emperor (Pliny being the best known example). Some people, but surprisingly few, were not able send a representative, so they would petition the governor (under any title) to send their letter along with the governor's usual written correspondence. The vast majority of the emperor's proclamations, decisions, etc. were done this way. These proclamations developed into roughly our equivalent of 'case law' (as opposed to legislative laws). The emperor could always disregard all precedents and laws, but he rarely did. This was not just for complaints, subjects could ask for benefits and gifts from the emperor, another completely un-modern thing.

What I found fascinating is how un-bureaucratic this was. No lower level 'employee' decided who could see the emperor. If someone showed up they were heard. Subjects believed that they could always appeal to the emperor and he would listen and be just. The emperor did listen to some very minor complaints.

Petitioning was not an easy job. Subjects had to go to where the emperor was, which was usually not Rome, and the emperor frequently moved so they had to follow. Then they would have to wait their turn, which could take days or weeks. There are examples of people going from Egypt to Germany. This is a large number of people regularly traveling hundreds of miles. I don't think this kind of travel happened in the west (Europe and Americas) until the railroads, or a little before. People seemed to think this was not a big deal. Given how often and far people traveled there is very little written that discusses how long, uncomfortable and dangerous it was. There are only two shipwrecks mentioned (there must have been more) and a very few other comments. It was always easier if the emperor were nearby, and the records show this.

There are modifications, nuances and development to this theme, but it still stands today. One example of a nuance is the people around the emperor did have influence over his decisions, and they could counsel a person on how or when to approach the emperor.

At the end Millar discusses how this existing structure was used by the Catholic church from the conversion of Constantine (and perhaps a little earlier). He shows that the first actions of the emperor were in response to complaints by one group in the church about some wrong. At the beginning these were procedural (this bishop was elected improperly) but he quickly got entangled in all the schisms and heresies. This is important in medieval history for the east (Byzantium ruled by an emperor/main priest) and the west (no empire so the Pope).

I don't know a lot about Roman history, although I read a lot of history. I found this book to be relatively easy. Millar cites only contemporary (Roman) texts which made it easier for me. The thesis is strongly stated several times with discussions of one particular aspect.

[Samantha Sink · Rating 4 out of 5]

Millar tackles a very encompassing, thoroughly detailed, and researched topic regarding the gritty details of administration and public life of emperors in the Roman world. While his question is not implicit, he asks: from a social history perspective, what were the primary functions of the emperor in the Roman world and what did those functions look like? What exactly was the job description of the emperor both administratively and in public life? And as a follow up, he also asks: how did this also look for senators and provincial governors?

He answers these questions categorically, by breaking up each function into chapters, such as “Entourage Assistants and Advisers,” “The Imperial Wealth: Gifts and Exactions,” and “Emperor at Work: Imperial Functions and their Social Settings.” Within each chapter he answers these questions chronologically by the reign of each emperor. Methodologically, he answers these questions by using literary sources, mainly ancient historical sources: Galen, Seneca, Cicero, Suetonius, Cassius Dio, and Pliny to name a few. However, he also uses the personal journals and written thoughts of Marcus Aurelius. His methodology also includes the use of archaeological material like papyri and inscriptions.

His approach is to analyze literary sources by data mining. He uses anecdotes and extracts evidence from literary sources to support his overall argument and to answer his many sub-questions throughout each chapter. His focus is on the social history aspect of the emperor in the Roman world. Many sub-questions that arise in the book are: How were emperors received when they traveled? How were they hosted? How were they escorted? How were they approached? What were the primary functions of an emperor? Where were the emperor’s headquarters? What was demanded of him from the people? How was imperial property and wealth acquired? How was imperial property and wealth institutionalized? What advisers and assistants did the emperor have? “How much did the role and function of emperor owe to the social patterns of late republican senatorial life in Rome? What were the physical and social settings of the emperors and senators?” What was his relationship with his subjects?

Millar attempts to use primary sources to show with examples what the emperors’ functions were. If he saw that more than one source wrote the same thing, or if a source repeatedly described the same thing, he wrote this down as a social pattern. For example, Millar wants to know in one sub-section, how an emperor journeyed or traveled around the empire? He soon discovers that traveling was a burden on the citizens of whatever town or city it was that the emperor visited. The city would receive word that the emperor would be coming there, and they needed to receive him, greet him, host him, and escort him to his next destination. The citizens would go out of their way to provide lodging, housing, food, and company for the emperor, not to mention, sometimes going as far as building a racetrack and an amphitheater, and hosting a gladiatorial game, a feast, or a festival while he was in town.

It was an honor and a tremendous thing to have the emperor visit, but it also was financially costly and laboriously burdensome on the citizens to make his stay welcome, comfortable, and grand. Millar sees this social pattern occurring over and over again spanning many periods. He cites examples of Cicero telling his brother Quintus not to be a burden on a city’s resources when traveling. Another source he cites, reveals Julius Caesar making strict laws about what provisions could be demanded of people while the emperor and consuls were traveling. Constantine stopped travelling altogether because of how burdensome it was on the citizens, and Severus Septimius tried to do his best by posting an edictum two months in advance to announce the day and time of his arrival to at least give the citizens time to prepare in receiving him.

Millar transforms our understanding of Roman Emperorship by concluding that it is smaller and more personal than historians think. The emperorship was a personable position due to the fact that people had access to have an audience with him. They could petition him and know that he would listen to their requests, grant favors, give gifts, and issue verdicts when necessary. The emperor read letters (libelli, salutationes, etc.) from everyday people in the Roman Empire too, which is also personal. He granted citizenship and he personally dictated and wrote letters. (Not all the time, but there is evidence.)

Millar also transforms our understanding of the Roman Emperorship by eliminating the fluff and fanfare. Instead of focusing on their military campaigns and victories, the grandiose, extravagant wealth and riches of an emperor, or the strength, power, and popularity of them, Millar pulls out the descriptive mundane details about the daily job duties of an emperor (and that of provincial governors). Over time, scholars and historians have hyped these emperors up as great political figures and military leaders (not saying that they are not), but at the end of the day, Millar shows us that—in a sense—they sit behind a desk, answer emails and respond to people within and outside of their network, give audiences, and attend public events. Not much different than today’s world leaders.

Millar’s argument and research are still credible today. Social history and the mundane everyday life of Romans in the empire is a very popular topic right now amongst modern historians. Scholars are wanting to know: what happened on a daily basis in Rome? Instead of looking at these huge historical or military events, historians are now asking, what went on at the micro-level? This also makes Millar’s methodology of data mining and extracting evidence from primary sources not only impressive, but also highly acceptable—because which ancient author would lie about the mundane? Why would they falsely misrepresent these most minute details, especially the administrative work of the empire? Millar is right to extract and use these sources in the way that he did to answer his overall question.

[Evan Þ. · Rating 4 out of 5]

This's a study on how the Romans themselves viewed the role of the Emperor, looking at the Roman Empire specifically without relying on extrapolations from pre- or post-Roman monarchies. The position of Emperor had a unique history; to what extent was that reflected in practice?

Millar answers this by six hundred pages of anecdotes about Emperors, organized topically: appointing officials, receiving petitions, consulting with friends, conducting trials, et cetera. From these, we can see what the Emperors did and, also, what people in those stories presumed they would do. Historians will find this collection very valuable; I let Millar carry me along with his conclusions and used this mostly to metaphorically spend time in Rome. A limited slice of Rome it was (one of Millar's points is that only people or groups of some standing were allowed to write to the Emperor), but still a significant and fun slice.

In conclusion, the Emperors were - from very early on - autocrats; and people related to them as such. In the East, used to monarchies, people frankly called him a king and assumed (correctly) he would do all the things that an Eastern king usually did. And then, after a generation or two, he started doing those same things in the West too. The precise way in which he did things was very similar to other upper-class Romans, but that barely concealed his unique power.

[Jack O'Connell · Rating 4 out of 5]

Millard’s magnum opus has held up rather well and continues to be an important text when analyzing the macro history of the Roman Empire.