April Blood: Florence and the Plot against the Medici

by Lauro Martines

One of the world's leading historians of Renaissance Italy brings to life here the vibrant--and violent--society of fifteenth-century Florence. His disturbing narrative opens up an entire culture, revealing the dark side of Renaissance man and politician Lorenzo de' Medici.

On a Sunday in April 1478, assassins attacked Lorenzo and his brother as they attended Mass in the cathedral of Florence. Lorenzo scrambled to safety as Giuliano bled to death on the cathedral floor. April Blood moves outward in time and space from that murderous event, unfolding a story of tangled passions, ambition, treachery, and revenge. The conspiracy was led by one of the city's most noble clans, the Pazzi, financiers who feared and resented the Medici's swaggering new role as political bosses--but the web of intrigue spread through all of Italy. Bankers, mercenaries, the Duke of Urbino, the King of Naples, and Pope Sixtus IV entered secretly into the plot. Florence was plunged into a peninsular war, and Lorenzo was soon fighting for his own and his family's survival.

The failed assassination doomed the Pazzi. Medici revenge was swift and brutal--plotters were hanged or beheaded, innocents were hacked to pieces, and bodies were put out to dangle from the windows of the government palace. All remaining members of the larger Pazzi clan were forced to change their surname, and every public sign or symbol of the family was expunged or destroyed.

April Blood offers us a fresh portrait of Renaissance Florence, where dazzling artistic achievements went side by side with violence, craft, and bare-knuckle politics. At the center of the canvas is the figure of Lorenzo the Magnificent--poet, statesman, connoisseur, patron of the arts, and ruthless "boss of bosses." This extraordinarily vivid account of a turning point in the Italian Renaissance is bound to become a lasting work of history.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Italy, Renaissance, European History, Historical, Biography

320 pages, Paperback

First published April 24, 2003

About the author

Lauro Martines , former Professor of European History at the University of California, Los Angeles, is renowned for his books on the Italian Renaissance. The author of Power and Imagination: City-States in Renaissance Italy, and most recently of Strong Words: Writing and Social Strain in the Italian Renaissance, he reviews for The Times Literary Supplement and lives in London with his wife, novelist Julia O'Faolain.

Reviews

[Michael · Rating 3 out of 5]

So, this is book number 2 in my epic quest to learn as much as possible about life in the fifteenth century. (I'm broadening my goals: Italy won't be the only place I research.) If you have any recommendations, please shoot them my way.

"April Blood" is the story about the political climate, and the political fallout, surrounding the attempted double murder of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici that happened on Easter Sunday, 1478. The subject is fascinating because Lorenzo was essentially pulling the strings of Florence's government, despite the fact that Florence was a republic with a constantly shifting group of people in power.

This book falls slightly into the Anti-Medici camp--that is, he paints the Medici in a mostly negative light. (It isn't that hard to do.) "Medici Money" by Tim Parks has a much more even-handed approach to the Medici, and it's nice to see the family from both these points of view. However. . . well, they were douche bags, weren't they? I mean, political intrigue was pretty rampant in the city anyway, but the Medici made it practically a dictatorship.

It's fascinating to see a republic where, to the outsider, everything seems to be fairly equal and unbiased, yet a small group of the wealthiest men are really controlling every decision... whereas here in the US, it's a group of the wealthiest men AND WOMEN. Ah. Progress.

Some sections of this book were fascinating. Martines includes a few letters discussing potential brides. One was written from a mother to her son, and describes the physical appearance of the bride in cruel, excrutiating detail. She then goes on to discuss the significance of the woman's familial ties, and the potential assets she might bring. She then mentions the dowery she expects the bride to come with. All this goes on for several pages. Finally, in the last sentence of the letter, she offhandedly mentions the girl's name.

Much of the political intrigue went a bit over my head since Martines takes it for granted that you have a fair amount of knowledge going into the book. Savonarola, a fire and brimstone priest who was quite an exciting character, is brought into the story without any background or context. He doesn't even mention the guy was a priest and just begins discussing his political dealings. If I hadn't just read Tim Powers's book, I would've had no idea what he was talking about. Unfortunately, much of the time I HADN'T heard of the people, and this made parts of the book carry much less impact than the author intended them to. My eyes glazed over on occasion and I thought about switching to Joe Abercrombie (the other book I was reading at the time).

So, I don't regret choosing this book, although it wasn't as clear or entertaining as "Medici Money." I did like the fact that Martines didn't hide his impression of the Medicis, and I definitely agree with his perspective. I mean, Lorenzo was a money-obsessed banker who also wanted total control of his city and was willing to exile entire family lines to get it.

If you have a little background in Florence during this time period, this is a four-star book. If you don't have any background, though, it's a three, or maybe a two. The subject is fascinating, but the book could've been a lot easier to follow with about 100 pages more detail clarifying the people and the culture.

[El · Rating 3 out of 5]

I finished April Blood a couple hours ago. I was all prepared to write the review but realized the bigger-than-my-head daiquiri I had with dinner hadn't worn off yet and I wasn't prepared to write one of those intoxicated reviews. So I watched Lifetime movies instead. And a Queen concert on one of those VH1 channels. (Queen is cool.)

Actually I was waiting on the proper review because I was wavering between 3 and 4 stars and I thought the only fair thing I could do is wait until morning to see if the sunlight brings new perspective to my feelings about the book, the Medicis, and the Pazzis. But then I said screw it.

Right now, a little buzzed still, I would say that this was a good book to wet one's Renaissance/Medici palate; but certainly there are better, more complete histories out there and I'd probably enjoy them more. Focusing only on the plot against the Medici family really means the text needs to be drawn out to make it more than just a chap book. Which requires a lot of speculation, like a bit about how Machiavelli was just a kid and was studying his Latin as the whole plot thing was going down. Was he really? Was he really studying his Latin at that moment? Maybe he was peeping in the window of the hot chick next door. I mean, maybe. Just sayin'.

It did include a nice bit of history on the status of women in the fifteenth century though, so for that I was grateful. I also now want to go back to Florence which is sort of unfortunate as we've decided on our next European trip we won't be visiting Florence since we've done it twice and feel like we might be missing out on other places. I mean it is Europe and all.

So, nice starter book, but I'd be interested in reading a more complete history on the situation. And by that I mean the plot against the Medicis, not Mike the Situation.

[Katie · Rating 3 out of 5]

I really appreciate Lauro Martines, because he is one of the few academic historians out there who genuinely seems to care about making history interesting, exciting, and accessible. This should be done more often because history is not boring, despite desperate attempts from many to make it so. And so while I would normally make fun of a book a little bit for calling itself something like APRIL BLOOD, I won't this time because hey! if it gets someone to pick up the book who normally wouldn't, awesome.

But all of this does make it a bit hard to give Martines's book a rating , because it depends almost entirely on what you're looking for. If you are a general beginner to the political history of the Italian Renaissance - or even if you're a beginner to history writing in general - I think that this would be a great book, and would bump it up to four stars. It tells an exciting story loaded with real conspiracy theories and it jumps around to touch on other aspects of life in 15th century Italy. If you're looking for something that will give you a good idea of whether or not you're interested in the political history of the period, this is a great choice. But if you're looking for a more in-depth treatment, this is probably not your best bet.

[Heather Stein · Rating 4 out of 5]

Martines’ April Blood uses the Pazzi conspiracy as a nexus from which to analyse the volatile political and economic situation in late Quattrocento Florence. Beginning with the consolidation of power by Cosimo de’ Medici, this monograph examines rising discontent among the political elite in Florence as well as conflict among other Italian polities to shed light on the motives for and consequences of the April 21, 1478 assassination attempts. After the Pazzi revolt, overt opposition to the Medici was stamped out - yet returned in 1494 when Piero di Lorenzo de’ Medici was ousted from the power structure after negotiations with Charles VIII which the Florentines would not accept. April Blood offers a narrative of two competing visions for Florentine government: a “republican” government with hundreds (if not thousands) of voting members and an “aristocratic” government with power largely in the hands of one man whose patronage network coopts other leading families into maintaining his rule.

The reader is offered three vignettes to better illustrate how personalities affected the political situation. While Lorenzo de’ Medici is depicted as a brilliant politician and man-of-letters, his ruthlessness in entrenching himself as the de facto ruler of Florence is condemned in this work which Martines presents as counter-balancing the traditionally positive depiction of the Medici and villification of the Pazzi family and their supporters.

Of particular interest were sections on marriage alliances (see the chapters “Social Climbers” as well as the discussion of Maddalena di Lorenzo de’ Medici’s marriage to Sixtus IV’s illegitimate son), diplomatic alliances (Sforza, Neapolitan and even Papal) and economic constraints.

[Chandi · Rating 2 out of 5]

Martines perhaps wanted to simply have fun with this book, after having already established himself as a serious scholar. April Blood lacks the rigor of his earlier works. However, the non-scholar will find it laborious to wade through the chapter on the Pazzi’s business practices and tiresome lists of their tax accounts. Additionally, while serious scholars tend to enjoy long letters from archives describing a bashful girl’s breeding and potential as a marriage partner, such as are found in the chapter on social climbers, the non-scholar looking for a gripping tale of murderous intrigue will be perplexed by this type of extraneous detail, that seems to have no bearing on the Pazzi plot. The jumping back and forth through time will add confusion for the lay reader not well versed in Renaissance Florence, while the lack of footnotes and of rigor will disappoint the careful scholar.

I have multiple gripes with his approach, and could write a few pages but here's one example: Martines, in his zeal to give the Pazzi a fair trial, carelessly implies that the murderous Pazzi Plot was driven by a desire to preserve the city’s Republican constitution.

“Somewhere too, in the Pazzi cause, however self-serving (though their contemporary Alamanno Rinuccini denied this), there was the republican argument: the demand for a more honest and open polity in Florence” (106).

In another instance, he claims that had the Pazzi coup been successful, “in this rescue, they would have been swept into a powerful current of republican reforms, leading to the swift expansion of the political class” (261).

These assertions beg for evidence, yet none is provided. Do the Pazzi commit this murder because they truly are concerned that the Medici are repressing the Florentine people? Or does their plot stem from a baser instinct -- their rivalry with, and hatred of, the Medici? Martines’ attempt to insert honorable intentions into the Pazzi’s shocking plans to commit murder during holy mass at the altar of the city’s most illustrious cathedral wobbles precariously through the book without supporting documentation.

[Nick · Rating 3 out of 5]

in my last year as a high school student, our school went to italy and in particular Florence or Firenze. We marveled at all the statues, buildings, art and the good food even on a school budget. Naturally, the Medici got name dropped all the time. That was many years ago but ever so often this dynasty of bankers kept appearing in my scope of interest but always on the side. I picked up bits and pieces and slowly I got more curious about it. Renaissance Europe was never really my forte and never gotten around to expand my knowledge so this was something like a check on a list.

Lauro Martines chose the april plot to murder Lorenzo and Guiliano Medici to talk about the power the Medici and in particular Lorenzo Medici wielded. But more importantly, the book is about how this power was obtained, the careful alliances, subtleties with marriage broker-ship, diplomacy and most importantly of all; wielding power as a defacto prince in an (oligarchic) republic city state. The art of using lending and debts as political leverage was surely mastered by the Medici but what I found most fascinating, is just how precarious their and their supporters/ hangerons and clients position really was. The medici’s incapability to truly dismantle the republican bedrock of Florentine politics even during the crisis of the aftermath of the public assassination attempt in a way cursed them to use any means necessary while walking on a tightrope to cling to power. A vicious circle and selfmade trap if there ever was one; if they fell they would fall hard so they had to use all dirty tricks but that meant adding even more reasons why their fall would be really bad for them.

The plot to kill the Medici brothers is without doubt front and center of the book. For me personally I am not that interested in every little event and person involved so when i got the yest of every side and angle of the plot I moved on. If you are really into murder plots and want to know every little bit, I can assure you you will find a lot to like here. People not that familiar with the major players involved will be happy to find detailed chapters on all those involved in particular the Pazzi family who played a key role in the events transpired. What I found most enlightening was the crucial hours after the failed murder attempt, the collective holding of the breath and uncertainty that gripped the city. More so then anywhere else do you get just how precarious the Medici’s hold on power was. They weren’t princes or hereditary or even elected overlords whose death’s would be avenged by the state, the vendetta that followed was deeply personal and depended on Lorenzo’s influence, agency, charisma and cool head in the few hours of the crisis when anything was possible.

I can easily recommend this book both for those interested in conspiracies and those like me primarily interested in the wider dynamics of power in renaissance Italy. Due to my preference on the bigger picture and the dynamics rather then the piecemeal events themselves, I was not fully on board for the whole thing but it has given me stuff to think about.

On a side not the connection between the Sforza family in Milan and the Medici was one I had not heard about before and had me look at that notorious family in a new light. In a way they too had to walk a tightrope, never truly shaking of the aura of illegitimate rule. It almost makes too much sense that they and the Medici would team up and back each other in those crucial crisis times when they might slip and fall.

[Andrew Reece · Rating 5 out of 5]

Lauro Martines Chronicles The History Of The Renaissance's Most Famous Clandestine Intrigue, The Pazzi Conspiracy.

Lauro Martines begins the acknowledgments to his richly detailed study on the Italian Renaissance's most widely known conspiracy with a brief comment: "I began to think about 'the Pazzi Conspiracy' some twenty-five years ago, but was reluctant to write about it, because it carries a strong whiff of sensationalism." He then quickly outlines how he one day received a suggestion that changed the entire momentum of the project, which slowly began to take shape from that point. "Much of the book's underpinning is drawn from a rich scholarship, fully acknowledged in notes at the end of the book. It is also the product of labour in the state archives of Florence, mingled with years of tinkering and reflection."

Certainly, other books exist that also cover the famous plot, among them Harold Acton's The Pazzi Conspiracy: The Plot Against the Medici, and Marcello Simonetta's The Montefeltro Conspiracy: A Renaissance Mystery Decoded. But Martines' is as close to an all-encompassing volume that the reviewer has encountered. The author has delved into the conspiracy's every facet, while using of an array of sources that include contemporary accounts and testimonials, ecclesiastical edicts, financial records - also providing chapters with expanded information on secondary subjects which enhance an already-comprehensive work. He provides an interpretation of the Pazzi clan's political and financial history, and also includes content on minor figures such as Giannozzo Manetti and Tommaso Soderini, men whose lives and careers help to illustrate the degree of economic and social control exercised by the Medici in Florence during the Quattrocento.

The Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478 was certainly not the first plot that attempted to usurp the Medici. Emboldened by the death of Cosimo Pater Patriae the previous year, in 1465 Dietisalvi Neroni's group of disenfranchised Medici partisans staged another conspiracy, one rooted in the colluders' belief that the Medici would best benefit by ending their alliance with Milan and instead make common cause with Venice. Lucca Pitti, one of the conspirators, owned a large hillside palace outside Florence, and thus was his band of rebels known as the Faction of the Hill, while Piero de'Medici led the Faction of the Plain. Their scheme's details were made known to Piero, who subsequently exiled the Faction of the Hill following the plan's failure. After the rebels' assiduous courting of the Serenissima and its condottiere Captain-General Bartolomeo Colleoni, this new conflict culminated in the Battle of the Riccardina, which was fought near Malpega Castle, and ultimately led to a treaty signed on 27 April 1468 between Venice and Florence.

The Italian Renaissance's most famous intrigue first saw its roots spread at roughly the time Lorenzo the Magnificent refused to fund Pope Sixtus IV's latest endeavor to acquire Imola for his nephew, Girolamo Riario. It can be argued that Sixtus' entire ethos is represented in Melozzo da Forlì's famous painting, which depicts the Pope appointing Bartolomeo Platina as Prefect of the Papal Library while ensconced by his relatives, all of whom received generous benefices, lands, or titles by his hand. The Medici were attempting to surround Florence in a safe zone by the purchase or conquest of neighboring towns and cities, and Lorenzo had been unable to buy the town of Imola from Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan. As a result of Lorenzo's refusal to fund his acquisition of this strategic location, in 1474 Pope Sixtus awarded the Papal banking contract to the Medici's rivals, the Pazzi clan, who were all too eager to complete the transaction for him.

This hardcover edition of Lauro Martines' April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici was first published in 2003 by the Oxford University Press, and features a 262-page main text which is split into 14 chapters of varying length, followed by 18 pages of expanded notes and a 10-page bibliography. There are 13 black-and-white illustrations of various related artwork, architecture and sketches, and two maps depicting the Florence City Centre and Italy in the late fifteenth century. Also included are three genealogical charts of the Medici, Della Rovere and Pazzi lineages, and a short list of dramatis personae appearing in the narrative.

In Chapter 1, Conspiracy, Martines delves into the background of the notorious Girolamo Riario, a primary Pazzi Conspirator and nephew of the nepotistic Pope Sixtus IV, who was tireless in his efforts to further the interests of his blood relations during his thirteen-year pontificate, which lasted from 1471-84. The author briefly pauses his story to discuss the circumstances surrounding Riario's eventual downfall ten years later in 1488 while ruling as lord of Forlì, where he was betrayed by two Forlivesi brothers, Checco and Ludovico Orsi, over an onerous land tax and his own soldiers' unpaid back wages.

This chapter addresses three contemporaneous conspiracies that occurred in suitably dramatic fashion - the 1488 plot against Galeotto Manfredi, lord of Faenza, which was instigated by his wife, Francesca Bentivoglio; the political coup staged against Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza in 1476 by the three conspirers - Giovanni Andrea Lampugnani, Gerolamo Olgiati, and Carlo Visconti; and finally, the former Capitano del Popolo Stefano Porcari's failed uprising of 1453 which attempted to establish a new Roman republic by overthrowing Pope Nicholas V, a scheme that was ultimately unsuccessful.

Martines' impressive, 10-page bibliography features works by early twentieth-century historians such as Cecilia M. Ady's The Bentivoglio of Bologna, Raymond de Roover's The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, and Harold Acton's The Pazzi Conspiracy, as well as more recent studies with which the reviewer hopes to be acquainted at some point. Readers searching for a comprehensive account of the Pazzi Conspiracy that is backed up by facts referenced from a superior array of scholarly source material have found the right book. The style of Martines' writing is accessible to a wide audience, while still retaining its academic merit which is entirely the product of his admirable and quite impressive knowledge of the subject matter.

The Italian Renaissance was a period of unparalleled opportunity for rising middle class Florentine families, and in Chapter 2, Social Climbers, the author provides a fascinating account explaining the complex system of arranged marriage and utilizes correspondence from the men and women who played a key role in brokering matches during this era - among them, Lorenzo de'Medici's mother, Lucrezia Tornabuoni, her contemporary Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi, and Alessandra's enterprising son-in-law, Marco Parenti. Martines provides analysis on these letters in short paragraphs which focus upon the marriages' lasting effect within the larger scheme of the family's sustained growth, or decline.

Near the chapter's conclusion the author summarizes the different methods employed by the Medici to achieve supremacy over the Florentine Signoria which ranged from controlling the scrutiny councils responsible for appointing election candidates that were first selected by lottery and then drawn by lot, to influencing the convening of parlamenti, general assemblies that were summoned in emergency situations and charged with determining whether a Balìa was necessary. A Balìa could suspend the power of the constitution and was necessary to pass unpopular domestic policies and address internal strife, their number ranging from 250-350 participants.

Also described is the method used by the Florentine Priors to determine the passing of legislation best described as 'voting by bean', in which a white bean signified a 'yay' and a black bean signified a 'nay'. While voting was supposed to be secret, those Priors who were Medici partisans would influence the outcome by deliberately exposing their bean and the other Priors would be compelled to cast their votes in the same way. Martines has done exceptional research for this entire section, which is explained with accessible terminology that will likely appeal to a wide audience of history readers.

The study's third section, Chapter 3, Profile: Manetti focuses on Giannozzo Manetti, a wealthy Florentine statesman and humanist who suffered for decades at the hands of Cosimo de'Medici and his régime's oppressive taxation laws. These seemed to target non-Medici partisans just as Cosimo himself was able to circumvent them by filing a doctored tax census. Manetti's taxes averaged out to be 5,600 florins per annum on a reported sum of 135,000 florins, and according to Martines, "Since a well-paid law professor of the period earned about 350 florins per annum, Giannozzo's average of yearly taxes was equal to the annual salaries of not fewer than fifteen jurists at the University of Bologna, the center of European legal studies." Manetti was active in the Florentine political sphere, where he served in a variety of different positions that included the Eight of Security, the University's board of trustees, and the Florentine Signoria's Twelve Advisors, the Dodici Buonomini.

Giannozzo Manetti was a talented rhetorician who composed a treatise, On the Essence and Dignity of Man, and dedicated it to King Alfonso of Naples, an act that garnered him the ire of the Florentine Signoria and also incurred a charge of cooperating with enemies of the republic, but after a heartfelt display of remorse which moved the Priors to tears, the charge was dropped, and Manetti was elected to serve on Florence's Ten of War for a brief time.

"Giannozzo's Latin style was so studied and ornate, it has been argued as to be the sign of a born courtier. He loved grand constructions, and his rotund and balanced sentences could certainly be made to glorify the powerful. Not surprisingly, since, like all humanists, he was especially well trained in the art of eloquence (rhetoric) and knew how to turn that learning to his advantage. But apart from letting it gain major embassies for him in Florence he refrained from using his golden words to curry favor with the oligarchy's bosses. In Florence itself he was a republican, and he sought that kind of tone and style with his peers."

Martines' Renaissance narrative is as much about banking and social status as about plots and conspiracies, creating an exceptionally balanced chronicle that possesses drama and depth in equal measure. Chapter 4, The Pazzi Family delineates the political and financial history of the Medici's enigmatic adversaries, whose patriarch Andrea de'Pazzi utilized a unique strategy for his own banking institution while accumulating his vast fortune. The Pazzi clan's origins date back to 1088 at the Siege of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, when Pazzo Pazzi was first to reach the far side of the walls during the city's storming. He was rewarded with three sacred stones which were, according to the legend, from the Holy Sepulchre, and were used in future Easter celebrations on Holy Saturday, in a procession that made its way through the streets of Florence.

The focus moves onto politics and finance, where the author has done tremendous work in his research on the Pazzi. Martines emphasizes how the clan paterfamilias Andrea de'Pazzi accumulated a vast reservoir of wealth by diversifying his portfolio, investing heavily into silk manufacture, and buying up large portions of the French Crown's salt tax, known as the gabelle. Andrea planned for the family's future by petitioning to have his magnate status changed to popolano, or commoner rank, a noble sacrifice which enabled his sons to pursue careers in politics. He also bought debtor firms and divested his capital in many different places, employing methods much different than those favored by the Medici. Martines briefly explains how this worked in the following passage, although elsewhere in the chapter he goes into greater detail.

"Andrea's tax returns show that one Pazzi firm might carry another in its accounts as a bad debtor, one to be written off, such as the partnership with the Guasconi link. This was because the debtor company was either running in the red or had shut down for business. Here was the practice of separate liability. Yet it is also clear that Andrea's companies were in part connected by a pattern of criss-cross investments. The Avignon partnership had over 1000 florins deposited in Andrea's Florence Bank. This bank in turn had more than 9000 florins invested in the Barcelona silk company. And the bank in Rome, listed in the name of Boscoli, had a deposit of about 2800 florins in the Florence firm."

Chapter 9, A Soldier's Confession contains an in-depth discussion of the condottiere Count of Montesecco, Giovanni Battista's confession to the Florentine authorities after his arrest for involvement in the April 29th plot against the Medici. It is believed that Montesecco's recruitment occurred sometime during the autumn of 1467, when he was approached by his lord and employer, Girolamo Riario, and the Archbishop of Pisa, Francesco Salviati. Martines uses a combination of his own translations of Battista's verbatim testimony in the Florentine records and his interesting analysis to outline the various clandestine meetings at which Montesecco was personally present as the conspiracy unfolded. Battista obviously had conflicting emotions as their plan progressed, and his indecision at crucial moments likely led to its ultimate failure.

Pope Sixtus IV and Lorenzo de'Medici had never enjoyed an entirely amicable relationship, even prior to the events of 29 April 1478. In Chapter 10, Raging: Pope and Citizen, Martines discusses the tempestuous feud which erupted between the Catholic pontiff and Florence's first citizen as a result of the Pazzi's failed coup d'état. Sixtus' initial move was to put to a halt all Florentine trade and financial affairs in the Eternal City, which was followed shortly thereafter by a prompt excommunication of not only Lorenzo himself, but also several key councils in Florence's Signoria as well as their advisors. These harsh edicts were the prelude to further ecclesiastical sanctions which involved a collective papal interdict on the cities of Florence, Fiesole and Pistoia, and suspension in those areas of all clerical services for members of the laity.

Florence responded to these draconian decrees by issuing its own series of stringent measures, including the promulgation of the Florentina Synodus, a document believed to be the record of a meeting of the Florentine clergy during which Sixtus is declaimed in the harshest terms, going so far as call him 'the vicar of Girolamo Riario', among other accusations alluding to his nepotism. The Florentine republic began utilizing citizens' stored assets as a forced war tax, and discontinued interest payments to shareholders on the public debt fund, called the Monte Commune, in favor of paying mercenary troops to fight against the pope's condottiere-led armies. Lorenzo the Magnificent prepared himself both emotionally and financially for a stressful diplomatic visit to the Kingdom of Naples, during which he hoped to successfully broker a treaty with King Ferrante that would ensure his and Sixtus' eventual reconciliation.

Martines canvasses the later years of Lorenzo the Magnificent's tenure in power as Florence's de facto ruler in Chapter 15, Lorenzo: Lord and Citizen, beginning with a dispassionate anecdote from the account of Duke Ercole I d'Este's ambassador to Florence, describing a rare occasion when Lorenzo allowed his façade to fall, and dealt out harsh justice to a band of dissenters. The author then provides an overview of the political methods utilized by Lorenzo de'Medici as he relieved the problematic ruling faction of their power and influence by essentially rewriting the city's constitution and instituting new councils and committees that were under direct Medici control. He narrowly avoids losing a crucial vote by 3 different councils to convene an all-powerful Balìa, which decreed the creation of a new council called the Seventy. This ruling body was comprised of men utterly loyal to the Medici who served for life and were expected to vote on measures in favor of the Medicean prerogative. "Here, in their privileged togetherness, Lorenzo would have a body that he could more easily divide and conquer, although he would naturally expect loyalty and obedience. The powers of the Seventy were unprecedented."

Overall, Lauro Martines' April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici is, in the reviewer's experience, the most comprehensive account of the Quattrocento's most famous intrigue currently available in the English language. The author has truly completed remarkable work with his research, which proved a bit overwhelming at times, particularly in the analyses of written correspondence, but it does not detract from the end result - a rich, polished study that speaks clearly and loudly enough to rest upon its own merits. Martines' prose style possesses its due share of academic rigour, but it is written in a popular vein which presents his content in an easy-going scholarly vernacular that is lucid and enjoyable to read.

April Blood will challenge the reader's willpower and patience at certain points, but it nonetheless remains a valuable and entertaining resource devoted to a famous Renaissance conspiracy that is virtually unrivaled in its level of complexity and intrigue. It is also extremely rewarding, and I would recommend it to any reader who prefers the fullest, most comprehensive account of these events prior to reading any other. Thank you so very much for reading, I hope that you enjoyed the review!

[Diane · Rating 5 out of 5]

In April 1478, assassins attacked Lorenzo the Magnificent and his younger brother Giuliano. Amazingly, the attack took place in the great cathedral of Florence. Giuliano died, but Lorenzo survived - which proved fateful for the conspirators. The conspiracy was led by one of Florence's leading families, the Pazzi, but also included powerful non-Florentines like the Duke of Urbino, the King of Naples, and even the pope, Sixtus IV. The actual attack on Lorenzo and the murder of his beloved younger brother actually take up just a few pages in the book. Most of it is devoted to Lorenzo's thirst for revenge. He even defies the pope, who comes across as a pretty reprehensible character in his own right. I was reminded of the end of the first Godfather father, where Michael exacts his revenge. I've often wondered if Mario Puzo got his inspiration from this actual event.

Lauro Martines is an excellent writer and historian, who has a gift for making history come alive. Some history books can be rather dry, but I have always enjoyed his books. Highly recommended.

[Laura · Rating 4 out of 5]

It's rare to find a history book which is accepted by academia and interesting to the general public, but this is one of them. Martines is a well-respected authority on the Medici, so there's really no way that professors could turn their noses up at this book just because - gasp - it reads well and is exciting (although a few did). It is interesting to read his introduction, where he apologizes profusely for having written something so entertaining. I am in a weird profession. At any rate, this is the story of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici family, in which they tried to overthrow the Medici.
The only complaint I have with this book is that there are no endnotes marked within the text, because apparently to see numbers in the text is too intimidating for "regular readers" - so you have to go through and painstakingly fill all of them in.

[Melisende · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book focuses on the plot by the Pazzi family of Florence to remove the Medici - namely Lorenzo and his brother Guiliano - from power in 1478. It is not light reading.

The author delves deeply into the psychi of medieval Florentine politics - which differs greatly from the politics of today - and into the social and political structure of this city and its ruling families. Customs - social, political and judicial - and the banking industry of medieval Italy are all seriously explored. The plot to remove the Medici had far-reaching affects - and not just for those in Florence.

As I mentioned, this book is not a piece of light reading - there are details here that without careful reading one could become lost in the maze that is the politic world of medieval Italy.

[Carlos Zúñiga · Rating 5 out of 5]

Lo que empieza siendo un minucioso y académico -y por momentos denso- perfilamiento de cada uno de los actores relevantes en la revolución de los Pazzi, se abre como flor de sangre en la página 147 en una crónica deliciosa y caótica del momento mismo de la fallido atentado. De allí en adelante, ese ritmo permea el resto de la obra y la hace absolutamente disfrutable, sin restarle el rigor.

[leo · Rating 3 out of 5]

this book is very interesting, especially in the the second half. the first half of the book was a bit hard for me to get into, as it largely deals with very technical things about Florence, Italy in the Renaissance. but the second half really pulled me in. i would say this is a great book for anyone interested in historical murder conspiracy plots or just Renaissance Italy in general.

[Ruben Kimmig · Rating 4 out of 5]

Sehr viel zu lesen aber unglaublich informativ und interessant!

[Syed Ali Hussain Bukhari · Rating 4 out of 5]

April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici

By: Lauro Martines


Basically, it's written as a general commentry of the 15th centuary Florence and in serving that purpose focusses specially upon the Medici and their opponent the Pazzi.

The author not only describes the bloody plot against the two Medici brothers; Lorenzo and Guiliano, but also provides us with the general reasons that made the Pazzi people, Pope Sixtus IV, King of Naples and the Duke of Urbino to get their hands equally dirty in the incomplete bloodbath.
In the violent attack, the younger brother Guiliano was brutally murdered. And after this, many gruesome scenes of bloody killings (of the Pazzi and their accomplices) were witnessed by history in the name sake of vengeance.

The book is not the praise for the Medici and also not a condemning statement againt the Pazzi. In fact, it seems like a comparative study of the political situations, the authority and actions, specially before and after the April 1478 plot; in favour or gainst both of the parties. It somehow seemed to me a mixture of a research work and a crime thriller.

It was not an easy digest for me but was very much informative. I cannot say that I enjoyed it very much but overall it was worth reading.

[Jennifer (JC-S) · Rating 4 out of 5]

The politics of the 15th century Italian states was complex, confusing and in a state of constant flux. Trade, envy, dynastic alliances and associated power all had a part to play. Against this backdrop, a plot to murder the Medici brothers was hatched. In attempting to make the complex machinations less confusing, Professor Martines has included a wealth of detail about the setting, the times, and the key players.

In summary, on 26 April 1478 in the cathedral of Florence, a plan to assassinate Lorenzo the Magnificent and his younger brother Guiliano was partially successful. Guiliano was murdered, Lorenzo survived. The core conspirators were members of the family Pazzi and were backed covertly by Pope Sixtus IV.

This book examines the questions surrounding who was involved, why they became involved, the consequences of the partial failure of the plot, as well as what the consequences of successful execution of the plot may have been.

Jennifer Cameron-Smith

[Liam Ostermann]

Probably one of the finest books I have ever read about the Medici and Renaissance Italy. It tells of the machinations of pope Sixtus IV to have the two young Medici boys, Lorenzo and Giuliano, murdered during mass in Florence Cathedral, by their assassins hired by Medici rivals the Pazzi. Just how extraordinary this horrifically bloody tale is can only be grasped by reading this work from a master historian who has dug through the archives to bring forth new light and understanding of this complex time.

[Tony · Rating 1 out of 5]

I quit on this book after 65 pages. I expected a fast flowing story about a conspiracy, it's failure and the Medici's revenge. Instead, this book is an incredibly detailed portrait of the upper stratum of renaissance Florentine society. The portion I read included, among other things, detailed information on marriage customs and the organization of Florence's government. By the time, I got to (literally) detailed tax returns of the conspirators, I had had enough.

[Christine · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book details the plot to kill the Medici that resulted in the death of one intended target. Martines does a good job of giving background to the story and providing the reader with nice character sketches. At times the prose is a little dry, but, hey that happens.

What I found interesting was the role of women in the history, they lack power but have power.

[M. Shipley · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent read if you are into historical texts. I found it all the more interesting since I was reading it in Florence!

[Jim Mann · Rating 4 out of 5]

In 1478, Lorenzo de' Medici was the leading man in Florence. Grandson of Cosimo, who's banking genius raised him to power, Lorenzo, called the Magnificent, was a poet, a scholar, a patron of the arts, and a crafty politician. Florence was a republic, but the Medici had undo influence, causing resentment in some quarter, both domestic and foreign -- including Pope Sixtus IV who resented Lorenzo's opposition to his appointment of a new Archbishop of Pisa. (It must be remembered that Popes in the fifteenth century were not just princes of the Church, but also political figures, often engaged in political tugs of war (and sometimes actual wars) with surrounding states.)

In April of 1478, it all came to a head, when members of another leading family, the Pazzi, backed by the Pope and the King of Naples, attempted to assassinate Lorenzo as he attended high mass in the Cathedral. Lorenzo was wounded but escape; his younger brother Giuliano was killed. The Pazzi conspirators stormed the central government palace, an attempt to capture the ruling council, sure that the public would rise in their favor if they did so. They failed. The raiders were trapped in the palace, and after the council rallied the people, they were executed: some hung, some simply tossed out of high windows. Other members of the Pazzi family were tacked down and killed, they family fortunes confiscated, and their name eradicated. In all, eighty or more people were killed.

This in turn resulted in a war, which Florence almost lost, until Lorenzo pulled the daring maneuver to travel to the home of one of his enemies, the King of Florence, and negotiate a peace (something that infuriated the Pope). And in the process, Lorenzo consolidated power (though it didn't last long beyond his lifetime).

Martines gives a balanced view of the events. Many histories tend to put most of the blame on the Pazzi, siding with Lorenzo. It's easy to see why. He was a learned man, skillful, brave, resourceful. He's the type of person you'd love to split a bottle of wine with -- as long as you were't one of his political opponents. But he also became a tyrant as he gathered power, particularly after the attempted assassination. Martines is sympathetic to the Pazzi, and in his concluding chapter even speculates that Florence may have had a better, longer lasting republic had they succeeded.

Overall, a good history, presenting a detailed account of an important even in Italian and European history.

[Almak · Rating 3 out of 5]

April Blood centers on the Pazzi conspiracy of April 1478 to kill Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici and free Florence, Italy from a perceived politically tyrannical family. Martines admirably gives the reader a glimpse of what it was like to live in Florence, Italy in the 15th century by delving into how members of the community worked to climb the social ladder and obtain political office, thus opening the doors to better business contacts, higher office and marriage into noble families.
Martines describes the process of matching families in marriage that helped to further political and economic ties and how those who did not obtain office were crushed by the inner oligarchy by excessively burdensome taxes. Certain chapters are devoted to profiling important members of Florence at the time such as Jacopo, Francesco and Renato Pazzi, Tommaso Soderini and Lorenzo de' Medici to give the reader insight into each person and their families and to explain how events through the previous decades built up to the assassination attempt of Lorenzo and Giuliano.

The latter portion of the book reviews the repercussions of the failed attempt for the citizens of Florence, the Pazzi family and others that were involved, which were swift and brutal. The reasons for the "war" between Pope Sixtus and Lornezo are given good coverage and shows how Lorenzo deftly brought his family and Florence back from the brink of overthrow through masterful diplomacy. Overall April Bloodis a well written insight of the time period and families it covers. If one is interested in the Pazzi conspiracy I would recommend reading this book.

[Matthew Cable · Rating 3 out of 5]

Definitely well written! I've been meaning to read this one for a long time. It feels a bit jumbled at times, if I was the editor I may have reworked the order of the chapters. But it's still a really good book that gives you a taste of what politics in Renaissance Florence were like.

It goes into the development of the Florentine bourgeoisie in the late medieval period and how they gradually intermingled with the aristocracy, and some of that plays out in the conspiracy itself. The Pazzi were an old aristocratic family with ancestors who had helped storm Jerusalem during the First Crusade, whereas the Medici derived their status from building up a banking and commercial empire starting in the 1200s. You definitely get a sense of the culture and style of these kinds of Renaissance despots, Lorenzo himself was practiced in the art of flowery, effusive rhetoric. If you enjoy political intrigue and gore, mixed with highfalutin oratory and writing, you'll enjoy this one. It really ought to be made into a movie - if you gave someone like Tony Soprano an aptitude for the classics and some training in rhetoric, you wouldn't be that far off from this cast of characters. Somebody get a copy of this to Scorsese or David Chase!

By the way, if my arithmetic is correct today is the 543rd anniversary of the April 26th attack at the Duomo. RIP Giuliano

[S.L. Barrie · Rating 4 out of 5]

A bit of a slog if I'm being brutally honest but nevertheless an enjoyable read, packed full of information.
The one thing that always strikes me about books supposedly about the Pazzi is how much of it is dedicated to the Medici, however this was by far the most extensive book I've read offering further insights to the maligned Pazzi family.
I thought the book was well organised, however mch of what is written is subject to supposition.... the author takes many liberties when reaorting to 'maybes', 'could haves', and the like.
There was also one glaring error in the book, which I couldn't wrap my head around how it came to be, since the author provided a handy geneological chart of the Pazzi family at the start of the book, but then on page 108 in an attempt to draw some sort of coincidental connection between the Pazzi and Medici, the author incorrectly states that Guglielmo Pazzi (husband to Bianca de'Medici - Lorenzo's elder sister) was the son of Piero Pazzi, when he was in truth the son of Antonio.
Other than that, this is a a very good read for those with an interest in learning more about the Pazzi and the political climate that led to the April plot to overthrow the Medici. I definitely came away with a better understanding of the politics and contemporary opinion in 15th century Florence.

[Reggie A · Rating 5 out of 5]

I love this book. It’s a cool topic, it’s insanely well researched, and most importantly it is so unbelievably accessible. This is the only book I read for a class that I then went and bought on my own. My copy is beat to all hell and covered in my own annotations.

A friend of mine described the narrative flow as “it reads like a distinguished YA novel but it’s being narrated by some guy from the History channel,,,cinematic masterpiece in book form”, and that’s so, so real. It’s awesome.

I wish I could be academic in how I talk about this book; my reviews of Doctor Who audio dramas are more objective and through, but this book is too close to my heart to discuss normally. I think it’s an excellent introduction to academic history reading if you don’t already do a lot of it, and I think it’s an expertly crafted book in its own right.

This book is the benchmark by which all research on the Pazzi will be judged.

[Davy · Rating 2 out of 5]

Op zich wel een interessant boek om te lezen op citytrip in Firenze, maar de schrijver is een universiteitsprofessor die zich te veel verliest in details, waardoor het soms meer als een cursus dan een boek voelt. Gelukkig heb ik het tweedehands gekocht en voelde ik me niet echt bekocht om delen over te slaan. Na een 50-tal bladzijden heb je immers wel door dat de geroemde Medici de meest corrupten aller corrupten waren en het geroemde Firenze als "bank van Europa" door een door corrupt was. Het hoofdstuk waarin de aanslag beschreven wordt is leuk om te lezen omdat je vlakbij het Medicipaleis, de kathedraal en het Palazzo Vecchio bent, maar dat de boekhouding of brieven tot in detail weergegeven wordt is toch meer voor de echte fans van deze (ongetwijfeld boeiende) historische periode.

[Amy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Interesting book

This book provides a different interpretation of the April plot to assassinate Lorenzo de Medici and his brother Guiliano. It focuses solely on the political lives and maneuvering of the Medici family and therefore the picture presented is not the usual paean to the family and especially Lorenzo. It portrays Lorenzo, and to a lesser extent Cosimo and Piero, as a tyrant who consistently chips away at the underpinnings of the Republic of Florence. It also portrays the conspirators in the April plot more sympathetically than normally seen.

I enjoyed the book which made me reexamine my own views of the Medici. I would definitely recommend the book.

[Katherine Neville · Rating 4 out of 5]

April Blood
by Lauro Martines

A meticulously researched examination of the personal relationships, domestic political climate, and international complicity involved in the partially successful (though ultimately disasterously failed) 1478 assassination/coup attempt known to history as the Pazzi Conspiracy. Martines, not at all as taken by the Medici princeling targetted by the plot, offers detailed analysis of contemporary sources, these often appearing as curious epigrams that are given depth and weight through context in the following chapter.

[David Cooper · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is a good book with lots of facts. He describes politics and revenge in Florence. He presents the Medici as self-serving most of the time, and doesn't give complete credit to the Medici. I gave it three stars because the writing is choppy, repeats itself, and introduces names of people and then they are gone. The author is erudite on his subject and even though this is not my first book on this subject, it seemed hard to follow at points. Still a good book to learn more about Florence during this time period.

[Tim O'Sullivan · Rating 4 out of 5]

I got into this to find out a little more about Florence and Fra Savronola, the Bonfire of the vanities, and the Medici. I was not disappointed. This is the story of the Pazzi conspiracy and the resultant to Medici power in Florence. It has more twists and turns than a Mario Puzo novel, which goes to prove that the truth is stranger than fiction. Absolutely brilliant- I can’t recommend this highly enough

[Erick · Rating 3 out of 5]

Es uno de los libros que más trabajo me ha costado leer, pero tenia muchas ganar de hacerlo. La familia Medicci fue una de las más influyentes del mundo entero en el renacimiento y este libro detalla sus lazos familiares y la forma en la que ascendieron al poder económico y de la iglesia. Es ampliamente recomendado para quienes tienen gusto por la historia del renacimiento. Solo quiero detallar que es muy detallado en el aspecto de la familia y sus raíces.