The Cold War began as a conflict between the US and the Soviet Union’s competing visions for a new international order after World War Two. The conflict centered around the two superpowers’ national security concerns and geopolitical ambitions. Beginning in Europe, it soon spread to Southeast Asia and the rest of the world.
---
The Cold War arose from the ashes of World War Two.
The year was 1945, and much of Europe and Asia lay in ruins.
After six years of global conflict, World War Two had finally ended. Sixty million people were dead. Another almost 60 million had been left homeless or uprooted. Large swaths of major cities had been reduced to rubble – including over 50 percent of Tokyo, 70 percent of Vienna, 80 percent of Manila, and 90 percent of Cologne, Düsseldorf, and Hamburg.
Meanwhile, the world’s international order was also in disarray. For 500 years, it had been dominated by Western European nations. In a historical blink of an eye, the war had knocked them off their pedestal. In their place had risen two rival, continent-spanning superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union.
The key message here is: The Cold War arose from the ashes of World War Two.
Tension and hostility ran between the US and the Soviet Union both before and during the second World War. As champions of capitalism, the US and its Western European allies viewed the Soviets’ communist ideology as a virus that needed to be contained. To that end, they had subjected the Soviet Union to nearly two decades of economic pressure and diplomatic isolation, starting right from the state’s inception in 1917.
World War Two brought the US, UK, and Soviet Union into an alliance against their common enemy: Nazi Germany. But the relationship between the US and the Soviets was more like a marriage of convenience than a genuine partnership.
The two nations couldn’t even agree on how to fight the war. The Soviet Union wanted the US and UK to open a front against Germany as soon as possible. Pushing back a massive German invasion of their territory, the Soviets were bearing the brunt of the Nazi war machine, and they wanted their allies to provide relief.
But much to the Soviets’ chagrin, the US and UK instead chose to focus first on North Africa and Italy in 1942 and ’43. By the time the US and UK finally invaded German-occupied Normandy in 1944, the Soviets alone were holding back over 80 percent of the Nazis’ military divisions.
Unable to see eye to eye when facing a common foe, the two sides became even more at odds with each other once that enemy was defeated – leaving a power vacuum to fill, a broken world to rebuild, and little agreement on how to proceed.
The Cold War was about to begin.
---
The US sought a favorable balance of power in Eurasia, a global sphere of influence, and superior military strength.
What would the postwar international order look like?
As the leaders of the US, UK, and Soviet Union met in a series of conferences at the end of World War Two, that was the question they faced.
Both the Soviets and the US agreed that international stability needed to be reestablished. But how? That was the sticking point. Each side envisioned the new world order through the lens of its own history, values, ideology, interests, and objectives. The resulting visions were at cross purposes with each other, leading to more and more conflict as the two superpowers began to pursue them.
So to understand the cause of that conflict, you need to understand where the two sides were coming from and what they wanted to achieve as they entered the postwar era. Let’s start with the US.
Here’s the key message: The US sought a favorable balance of power in Eurasia, a global sphere of influence, and superior military strength.
US strategists took away three main lessons from World War Two.
First, the US needed to prevent any other nation or alliance of nations from dominating Eurasia – particularly the so-called Eurasian heartland spanning the territory between Europe and East Asia. With its combination of abundant natural resources, industrial infrastructure, skilled labor, and military facilities, this region was the most economically and strategically important “prize” in the world. It was the fulcrum on which global power rested.
The Axis powers had seized control over most of it in the early 1940s. To prevent anything like that from happening again, the US and its allies had to maintain a favorable balance of power in the region.
Second, the Japanese attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, had demonstrated that the US could no longer rely on the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to protect it from enemies abroad. Advancements in military technology had rendered the US vulnerable to long-distance attacks.
In the view of American strategists, the best way to counter this threat was to expand their nation’s sphere of influence by creating a global network of US-controlled air and naval bases. That way, the United States could project its military power around the world and snuff out enemies long before they had a chance to attack US territory.
But to do all that, the US needed to maintain superior military strength; that was the third lesson US strategists learned, and what we’ll look at next.
---
The Soviet Union sought to protect itself by keeping Germany weak and creating a buffer zone in Eastern Europe.
Even before World War Two ended, the US was already starting to pursue its vision of the postwar international order.
In late 1944, it struck a series of economic agreements with its allies at the Bretton Woods Conference, which also laid the foundation for establishing the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. By 1946, the US State Department had drafted an extensive list of “essential” sites for US military bases, which included locations in Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Cuba, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Senegal, Liberia, Morocco, Burma, New Zealand, and Fiji.
Most of the world’s major powers were falling in line with the US’s global vision – either voluntarily, as with allies like the UK and France, or involuntarily, as with defeated and occupied enemies like Germany and Japan. There was just one main obstacle remaining: the Soviet Union, which had its own vision.
The key message here is: The Soviet Union sought to protect itself by keeping Germany weak and creating a buffer zone in Eastern Europe.
The Soviet Union suffered huge losses during World War Two. At least 25 million Soviets died – many of them in the Nazi invasion of their territory. During that invasion, the Nazis occupied nine out of 15 Soviet Republics and destroyed 1,700 Soviet cities and towns, 70,000 villages and hamlets, 31,000 factories, and millions of acres of crops.
Just 25 years earlier, the same regions had been invaded during World War One, back when they were part of the Russian Empire. Both times, the invader was Germany. And both times, the invasion route was Poland.
Given this history, Soviet strategists had two main objectives in mind with their vision of the postwar international order in Europe. First, they wanted to keep Germany weak so it could never threaten them again. Second, to prevent any future invasions, they wanted to create a buffer zone around their territory – including Poland in particular, but also the other Eastern European countries surrounding the Soviet Union.
In the end, this pair of objectives led the Soviet Union to install or promote communist regimes in East Germany, Poland, and a number of other Eastern European countries, such as Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary, which became the Soviets’ so-called “satellite states.” It also brought the Soviet vision of the postwar order into conflict with the American vision, giving rise to the Cold War – a story we’ll turn to next.
---
The Cold War was largely fought in and over the so-called “Third World.”
What made Southeast Asia so important to the Soviet Union and the US from the 1950s onward?
Well, by this point, the two sides already viewed each other as enemies, thanks to what had happened in Europe. As the conflict expanded to Asia, each side followed the logic that a setback for their enemy was an opportunity for them.
The US wanted its vision of the postwar order to extend to East Asia – particularly Japan, which relied on Southeast Asia for trading partners. If most of the region turned communist and aligned itself with the Soviet Union and China, this vision would be jeopardized. Japan might even align itself with the communists.
Both sides knew this, which motivated one of them to promote communism and the other to push back against it in the region. But there was also a larger context to this story.
The key message here is: The Cold War was largely fought in and over the so-called “Third World.”
Some of the terms are now considered outdated, but during the Cold War, the US and its allies were called the “First World,” or “the West,” while the Soviet Union and its allies were the “Second World,” or “the East.” The rest of the planet – most of Africa, Asia, and Latin America – was the “Third World.”
Before World War Two, much of the Third World was ruled by Western nations as colonies. After the war, more and more of those colonial governments were being overthrown and replaced by independent nations. As these new nations and movements emerged, they faced a pivotal question: Should they align themselves with the West or the East?
Of course, the US and Soviet Union had their own rather biased opinions on the matter. Throughout the 1950s, ’60s, ‘70s, and ‘80s, they made those opinions known in a variety of economic, political, militaristic, and clandestine ways. They sent military trainers, equipment, and funding to the movements and nations they wanted to court. They orchestrated coups and assassinations against the ones they wanted to undermine. Sometimes they even went to war against them, as the US did in Vietnam and the Soviets did in Afghanistan. In fact, almost all of the actual wars that happened during the Cold War took place in the Third World.
To the victors of these conflicts went the spoils: economic resources, military bases, allies, and prestige for the Soviets or Americans, depending on which side won. But it was the people of the Third World who largely paid the price. Of the estimated 20,000,000 human beings who died during Cold War conflicts, 19,800,000 of them lived in the Third World.
---
The Cold War ended where it began: Europe.
To make a long story short, the rest of the Cold War played out as a series of variations on the themes we’ve already covered. In Southeast Asia and the Third World as a whole, the Soviet Union and the US continued to duke it out with each other indirectly by supporting pro-Soviet or pro-US regimes and movements.
From the 1950s to the ‘80s, the conflict ebbed and flowed, as tensions heated and cooled between the superpowers. Sometimes it boiled over into crises that nearly brought them to the brink of war. In the 1950s and ‘60s alone, flashpoints arose in Iran, Guatemala, Indochina, the Taiwanese Strait, the Suez Canal, Lebanon, Indonesia, Cuba, and the Congo.
Notice how the list doesn’t include a single European nation? What happened to Europe? That brings us to the end of the story.
Here’s the key message: The Cold War ended where it began: Europe.
The initial flashpoint of the Cold War was Europe – particularly Germany. But starting in the 1950s, it became the most stable arena of the conflict. There were a couple of crises centering on Berlin, but otherwise, things were relatively calm, if chilly.
Basically, each side was resigned to letting the other have its sphere of influence in its half of Europe. The two superpowers and their European allies were so heavily armed that any direct conflict would lead to devastating death and destruction for both of them.
That became increasingly true after the Soviets developed nuclear weapons and the two sides entered an arms race in the 1950s and ‘60s. In addition to greatly expanding their conventional military forces, each side built up more and more nuclear missiles to catch up with or stay ahead of the other.
By the end of the 1960s, each of them had thousands of nuclear missiles. If a direct war broke out between them, they’d annihilate each other – a grim prospect that became known as Mutually Assured Destruction.
With this in mind, neither side wanted to risk a direct conflict, and the idea of either side invading the other in Europe became increasingly unthinkable. In the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev decided it was pointless to continue pouring resources into defending the Soviet Union against an invasion that would never happen. In 1988, he scaled back the Soviet Union’s armed forces, reduced its military presence in Eastern Europe, and loosened its grip on the region.
Within a year, its former satellite nations began to declare independence, and by 1990, Germany was reunited. The Cold War was over, and the Soviet Union itself collapsed the next year.