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Istorija prasideda Šumere. Trisdešimt devyni dalykai, pirmą kartą paminėti rašytinėje istorijoje
Žymiausio šumerų raštijos ir literatūros tyrėjo, amerikiečių profesoriaus Samuelio Noah Kramerio knyga „Šumerai“ – tai klasikinė šumerų, civilizacijos, gyvavusios dabartinio Irako pietuose ir klestėjimo viršūnę pasiekusios III tūkstantmetyje prieš Kristų, gyvenimo ir įspūdingų laimėjimų studija. Ji išversta į daugelį kalbų ir pakartotinai leidžiama įvairiose šalyse.
Vienas didžiausių šumerų indėlių į pasaulio civilizaciją yra tai, kad jie sukūrė dantiraštį – seniausią pasaulyje rašto sistemą, kuri pirmąkart istorijoje leido žmonėms užrašyti įstatymus ir literatūros kūrinius. Didžiąją dalį knygoje aprašomų rašytinių šaltinių autorius pats atrado įvairiuose pasaulio muziejuose, interpretavo juos ir su išsamiais komentarais aprašė savo veikaluose, tokiu būdu atskleisdamas pasauliui ir mokslui seniausios pasaulio civilizacijos literatūros ir religijos šaltinius.
Senovės Šumere gyveno tokia išsivysčiusi, galinga, veikli ir versli visuomenė, kad ji, nedaug perdėdami galėtume tvirtinti, sukūrė istoriją. Knygoje pateikiamas skerspjūvis visų tų „pirmąkart“, kuriuos mums paliko šumerai visose svarbiausiose žmonijos veiklos srityse – politikoje ir valdyme, švietime, literatūroje, filosofijoje, etikoje, teisėsaugoje, žemės ūkyje ir medicinoje, netgi meilės ir šeimos santykių sferoje.
Nepaisant to, kad knyga skiriama plačiajai visuomenei, S. N. Krameris joje dėsto savo mokslinių tyrimų rezultatus ir skelbia hipotezes, kurios remiasi tvirtais įrodymais. Puikūs tiek moksline, tiek literatūrine prasme dantiraščio tekstų, atspindinčių visas šumerų gyvenimo puses, vertimai, patrauklus dėstymas, didžiulė faktinės medžiagos gausa, rėmimasis moderniausiais mokslinio tyrimo metodais teikia pagrindo rekomenduoti šią amerikiečių profesoriaus knygą visiems, kas domisi žmonijos praeitimi. Ji bus ypač naudinga istorijos mokytojams – čia jie ras daug naudingų žinių. Būtina dar kartą pabrėžti didžiulę pažintinę profesoriaus Kramerio knygos vertę.
Vienas didžiausių šumerų indėlių į pasaulio civilizaciją yra tai, kad jie sukūrė dantiraštį – seniausią pasaulyje rašto sistemą, kuri pirmąkart istorijoje leido žmonėms užrašyti įstatymus ir literatūros kūrinius. Didžiąją dalį knygoje aprašomų rašytinių šaltinių autorius pats atrado įvairiuose pasaulio muziejuose, interpretavo juos ir su išsamiais komentarais aprašė savo veikaluose, tokiu būdu atskleisdamas pasauliui ir mokslui seniausios pasaulio civilizacijos literatūros ir religijos šaltinius.
Senovės Šumere gyveno tokia išsivysčiusi, galinga, veikli ir versli visuomenė, kad ji, nedaug perdėdami galėtume tvirtinti, sukūrė istoriją. Knygoje pateikiamas skerspjūvis visų tų „pirmąkart“, kuriuos mums paliko šumerai visose svarbiausiose žmonijos veiklos srityse – politikoje ir valdyme, švietime, literatūroje, filosofijoje, etikoje, teisėsaugoje, žemės ūkyje ir medicinoje, netgi meilės ir šeimos santykių sferoje.
Nepaisant to, kad knyga skiriama plačiajai visuomenei, S. N. Krameris joje dėsto savo mokslinių tyrimų rezultatus ir skelbia hipotezes, kurios remiasi tvirtais įrodymais. Puikūs tiek moksline, tiek literatūrine prasme dantiraščio tekstų, atspindinčių visas šumerų gyvenimo puses, vertimai, patrauklus dėstymas, didžiulė faktinės medžiagos gausa, rėmimasis moderniausiais mokslinio tyrimo metodais teikia pagrindo rekomenduoti šią amerikiečių profesoriaus knygą visiems, kas domisi žmonijos praeitimi. Ji bus ypač naudinga istorijos mokytojams – čia jie ras daug naudingų žinių. Būtina dar kartą pabrėžti didžiulę pažintinę profesoriaus Kramerio knygos vertę.
408 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 1956
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About the author
Samuel Noah Kramer
44 books115 followersDr. Samuel Noah Kramer, Ph.D. (University of Pennsylvania, 1929; born Simcha Kramer), was a historian, philologist, and Assyriologist, particularly renowned as an expert in the language and history of Sumer. He was Clark Research Professor Emeritus of Assyriology at the University of Pennsylvania, where he was also Curator Emeritus of the Tablet Collections.
Dr. Kramer is often credited with the virtual creation of Sumerian cuneiform literature as an academic field, in which he wrote some 30 books for both academic and popular audiences. was a member of the American Oriental Society, Archeological Institute of America, Society of Biblical Literature and American Philosophical Society, which awarded him its John Frederick Lewis Prize.
Dr. Kramer is often credited with the virtual creation of Sumerian cuneiform literature as an academic field, in which he wrote some 30 books for both academic and popular audiences. was a member of the American Oriental Society, Archeological Institute of America, Society of Biblical Literature and American Philosophical Society, which awarded him its John Frederick Lewis Prize.
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October 6, 2018
سومریان از اقوام باستانی ساکن داشته در جنوب سرزمین کنونی عراق یعنی میانرودان (سرزمین بین دو رود دجله وفرات) و شمال خلیج فارس بودند. ایشان از جمله در شهر باستانی بابل سکنی داشتند و تمدنی پرمایه را پی‌ریزی نمودند. شهرهای سومر/شومر عبارت بود از «اور»، «اوروک »، یا «ارخ »، «نیب پور»، «لارسا». در سفر پیدایش این ناحیه را سرزمین «شنعار» نامیده اند.
حکومت آن در حدود ۳۰۰۰ ق .م . تشکیل گردید و در هزاره دوم (۲۱۱۵ ق .م .) منقرض شد و قلمرو آنان ضمیمه آشور و بابل گردید. سومری‌ها قومی بودند که خود شاخه‌ای جدا از نظر نژادی و زبانی تشکیل می‌دادند و با هیچ‌یک از اقوام امروزی خویشاوندی ندارند. زبان آنها نیز تک‌خانواده است از میان همه هنرها، شاید عالی‌ترین دستاورد سومریان ادبیات بوده باشد.
پژوهشگران ادبیات سومری را به هشت مقوله تقسیم کرده اند: اساطیر، داستان‌های حماسی، سروده ها، مرثیه ها، اسناد تاریخی، رسالات، احکام (دستورات اخلاقی) و ضرب المثل ها. نوشته‌های سومری در سراسر خاور نزدیک باستان ترجمه و نسخه برداری شدند و بر نوشته‌های عبری و یونانی تاثیر نهادند.
از میان اساطیر متعدد سومری، سه اسطوره به داستان‌های عهد عتیق شباهت دارند. یکی از این اسطوره‌ها داستان آدمیانی را می‌گوید که از گل آفریده شده بودند و در سرزمینی پر بار موسوم به دیلمون می زیسته اند که در آن نه بیماری بود و نه مرگ، ولی از آب شیرین هم خبری نبود. انکی فرمان می‌دهد آب شیرین را از زمین، چونان نهری که از باغ بهشت جاری است بیاورند. بدین سان دیلمون باغی ملکوتی می‌شود.
این اسطوره از زنی می‌گوید که به انکی گیاهانی پیشکش می‌کند که نفرین برایش می‌آورند و سبب درد دنده اش می‌شوند. آن گاه یک «بانوی دنده» برای درمان آن خلق می‌شود. دو داستان دیگر طوفان نوح و صبر ایوب هستند
حکومت آن در حدود ۳۰۰۰ ق .م . تشکیل گردید و در هزاره دوم (۲۱۱۵ ق .م .) منقرض شد و قلمرو آنان ضمیمه آشور و بابل گردید. سومری‌ها قومی بودند که خود شاخه‌ای جدا از نظر نژادی و زبانی تشکیل می‌دادند و با هیچ‌یک از اقوام امروزی خویشاوندی ندارند. زبان آنها نیز تک‌خانواده است از میان همه هنرها، شاید عالی‌ترین دستاورد سومریان ادبیات بوده باشد.
پژوهشگران ادبیات سومری را به هشت مقوله تقسیم کرده اند: اساطیر، داستان‌های حماسی، سروده ها، مرثیه ها، اسناد تاریخی، رسالات، احکام (دستورات اخلاقی) و ضرب المثل ها. نوشته‌های سومری در سراسر خاور نزدیک باستان ترجمه و نسخه برداری شدند و بر نوشته‌های عبری و یونانی تاثیر نهادند.
از میان اساطیر متعدد سومری، سه اسطوره به داستان‌های عهد عتیق شباهت دارند. یکی از این اسطوره‌ها داستان آدمیانی را می‌گوید که از گل آفریده شده بودند و در سرزمینی پر بار موسوم به دیلمون می زیسته اند که در آن نه بیماری بود و نه مرگ، ولی از آب شیرین هم خبری نبود. انکی فرمان می‌دهد آب شیرین را از زمین، چونان نهری که از باغ بهشت جاری است بیاورند. بدین سان دیلمون باغی ملکوتی می‌شود.
این اسطوره از زنی می‌گوید که به انکی گیاهانی پیشکش می‌کند که نفرین برایش می‌آورند و سبب درد دنده اش می‌شوند. آن گاه یک «بانوی دنده» برای درمان آن خلق می‌شود. دو داستان دیگر طوفان نوح و صبر ایوب هستند
June 3, 2021
History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History by Samuel Noah Kramer, a leading Sumerologist, provides a fascinating look at cuneiform tablets detailing the achievements of the Sumerians of 4,000 years ago, a people who lived in what is now southern Iraq.
Piecing together various clay tablets, some of which are scattered in different museums across the globe, Professor Kramer translates and compiles 39 firsts. Among these is the first time on record where a father implores his juvenile delinquent son to stop idling about and to focus on his studies; the first bicameral congress; the first legal court case; the first instance of tax reform; the first flood; the first library catalogue; etc. etc. Professor Kramer discusses Sumerian use of literary imagery, laments, and elegies. He gives a detailed discussion of the Gilgamesh epic and shows the parts later borrowed by the Babylonians. He draws similarities between the language in tablets detailing ancient Sumer’s Sacred Marriage Rite with the Biblical Song of Songs. And he finds common threads in Inanna’s descent into the nether world and the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus.
Professor Kramer is careful to credit the work of previous translators and makes it clear he is building on their efforts. He also expresses his indebtedness to his former students and assistants in compiling and translating the clay tablets. He summarizes the contents of each of the tablets before providing a translation. He includes a table showing the origin and development of the squiggly signs representing the cuneiform system of writing; illustrations of some of the clay tablets as well as actual photographs; addenda; a glossary; and maps.
This work is the culmination of years of brilliant, painstaking research. It is very accessible and will appeal to both scholars and a general audience interested in Sumer’s contributions to civilization. Professor Kramer’s tone is engaging; his enthusiasm for the material is contagious. By breathing life into these ancient documents, he reminds us we share many of the same joys and concerns as our ancient ancestors.
Four thousand years ago, a father pleaded with his child to take his schoolwork seriously. What’s not to love about a study that allows his voice and the voices of others to reverberate through the millennia?
Very highly recommended.
My book reviews are also available at www.tamaraaghajaffar.com
Piecing together various clay tablets, some of which are scattered in different museums across the globe, Professor Kramer translates and compiles 39 firsts. Among these is the first time on record where a father implores his juvenile delinquent son to stop idling about and to focus on his studies; the first bicameral congress; the first legal court case; the first instance of tax reform; the first flood; the first library catalogue; etc. etc. Professor Kramer discusses Sumerian use of literary imagery, laments, and elegies. He gives a detailed discussion of the Gilgamesh epic and shows the parts later borrowed by the Babylonians. He draws similarities between the language in tablets detailing ancient Sumer’s Sacred Marriage Rite with the Biblical Song of Songs. And he finds common threads in Inanna’s descent into the nether world and the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus.
Professor Kramer is careful to credit the work of previous translators and makes it clear he is building on their efforts. He also expresses his indebtedness to his former students and assistants in compiling and translating the clay tablets. He summarizes the contents of each of the tablets before providing a translation. He includes a table showing the origin and development of the squiggly signs representing the cuneiform system of writing; illustrations of some of the clay tablets as well as actual photographs; addenda; a glossary; and maps.
This work is the culmination of years of brilliant, painstaking research. It is very accessible and will appeal to both scholars and a general audience interested in Sumer’s contributions to civilization. Professor Kramer’s tone is engaging; his enthusiasm for the material is contagious. By breathing life into these ancient documents, he reminds us we share many of the same joys and concerns as our ancient ancestors.
Four thousand years ago, a father pleaded with his child to take his schoolwork seriously. What’s not to love about a study that allows his voice and the voices of others to reverberate through the millennia?
Very highly recommended.
My book reviews are also available at www.tamaraaghajaffar.com
June 7, 2019
Un bel libro sotto forma di elenco dei guinness dei primati, trenta capitoli per trenta diversi guinness, in cui i campioni sono loro, le "Teste nere" che sotto tutti gli aspetti sono stati gli antesignani dell'umanità nel cammino della civiltà e della cultura. Inventori della scrittura, non solo, primi cosmologi, mitografi, poeti e letterati, agricoltori e ingegneri idraulici, architetti e costruttori, chi più ne ha, più ne metta. A dire il vero la Newton ha un pochino barato, perché nell'edizione originale del 1956 i capitoli in realtà sono 39; ma tanto basta. Assirologo e decifratore di una montagna di tavolette cuneiformi, Kramer brillò scientificamente e culturalmente tra gli anni '30 e '60-70, mi par di capire, spostandosi continuamente dagli States all'Europa e, soprattutto, Medio Oriente alla ricerca di testi e pezzi d'argilla per ricostruire l'immenso patrimonio letterario dei Sumeri.
L'esposizione volutamente facile e scorrevole, il tono accattivante con cui presenta gli argomenti, rendono piacevolissima la lettura, ma soprattutto ciò che rende affascinante il suo libro è il continuo riferimento e accostamento dei testi letterari, molto spesso tradotti da lui stesso. Veniamo così a contatto con la civiltà delle "Teste nere", con il loro pensiero, con la mentalità, con le loro speculazioni, invenzioni, desideri, speranze, paure, angosce. Eroi mitici come Gilgameš, Enkidu, Ziusudra, re potenti come Ur-Nammu e Shulgi, Lugalzaggesi, Urukagina, Gudea di Lagash, solo per citarne alcuni; o gli dei del pantheon sumero: An, Enlil, il geniale e bonario Enki, i terribili Ereshkigal (la "Signora della grande terra")e il suo sposo Nergal (antesignani, un po' più cattivi e duri, di Proserpina e Ades) signori del Kur (mamma mia! leggendo i miti delle varie discese agli inferi, beh, fa un certo effetto). E soprattutto la bellissima e affascinante Inanna, dea dell'Amore, della vita della natura e della fecondità, di cui le "Teste nere" subivano la malìa, tanto da parlarne continuamente tirandola in ballo in ogni composizione mitologica.
Sì la mitologia sumera di cui Kramer ce ne dà un saggio è letteralmente affascinante.
La vita delle "Teste nere" era principalmente "qui ed ora", magari a servizio degli dei di cui avevano un grandissimo rispetto. Il "dopo" sarebbe stato ben misero: ombre pallide e smorte nel regno di Ereshkigal, che siedono addolorate nella polvere, vestite di piume come uccelli, che si nutrono di polvere; persino Gilgameš, o il grande Ur-Nammu, promossi a gran dignitari degli Inferi, sospirano la luce del sole, l'abbraccio della sposa, le carezze e i baci ai loro bambini, i suoni, i canti, gli amici.
Infine, "Se qualcuno è colto da dubbi circa la fraternità degli uomini e l'umanità comune a tutti i popoli e a tutte le razze, legga i loro adagi e i loro precetti. più delle altre opere letterarie, queste trascendono le differenze di civiltà e di ambiente e svelano ciò che vi è di universale e permanente nella nostra natura". (Kramer, p.119)
Una grande lezione di civiltà ed umanità; quella delle "Teste nere" e quella di Kramer.
L'esposizione volutamente facile e scorrevole, il tono accattivante con cui presenta gli argomenti, rendono piacevolissima la lettura, ma soprattutto ciò che rende affascinante il suo libro è il continuo riferimento e accostamento dei testi letterari, molto spesso tradotti da lui stesso. Veniamo così a contatto con la civiltà delle "Teste nere", con il loro pensiero, con la mentalità, con le loro speculazioni, invenzioni, desideri, speranze, paure, angosce. Eroi mitici come Gilgameš, Enkidu, Ziusudra, re potenti come Ur-Nammu e Shulgi, Lugalzaggesi, Urukagina, Gudea di Lagash, solo per citarne alcuni; o gli dei del pantheon sumero: An, Enlil, il geniale e bonario Enki, i terribili Ereshkigal (la "Signora della grande terra")e il suo sposo Nergal (antesignani, un po' più cattivi e duri, di Proserpina e Ades) signori del Kur (mamma mia! leggendo i miti delle varie discese agli inferi, beh, fa un certo effetto). E soprattutto la bellissima e affascinante Inanna, dea dell'Amore, della vita della natura e della fecondità, di cui le "Teste nere" subivano la malìa, tanto da parlarne continuamente tirandola in ballo in ogni composizione mitologica.
Sì la mitologia sumera di cui Kramer ce ne dà un saggio è letteralmente affascinante.
La vita delle "Teste nere" era principalmente "qui ed ora", magari a servizio degli dei di cui avevano un grandissimo rispetto. Il "dopo" sarebbe stato ben misero: ombre pallide e smorte nel regno di Ereshkigal, che siedono addolorate nella polvere, vestite di piume come uccelli, che si nutrono di polvere; persino Gilgameš, o il grande Ur-Nammu, promossi a gran dignitari degli Inferi, sospirano la luce del sole, l'abbraccio della sposa, le carezze e i baci ai loro bambini, i suoni, i canti, gli amici.
Infine, "Se qualcuno è colto da dubbi circa la fraternità degli uomini e l'umanità comune a tutti i popoli e a tutte le razze, legga i loro adagi e i loro precetti. più delle altre opere letterarie, queste trascendono le differenze di civiltà e di ambiente e svelano ciò che vi è di universale e permanente nella nostra natura". (Kramer, p.119)
Una grande lezione di civiltà ed umanità; quella delle "Teste nere" e quella di Kramer.
May 21, 2016
Dans ce livre, Samuel Noah Kramer met les écrits sumériens à l'honneur, plus qu'il ne cherche à écrire une histoire de ce peuple oublié. Ce sont les plus anciens récits connus qui nous soient parvenus. Au fil des chapitres qui égrènent les différents types de textes, apparait la variété des sujets des tablettes enfouies sous le désert irakien. Pour chacun, une description, un historique de l'artefact, un résumé ou une traduction. On découvre ainsi l'existence d'un système de représentation bicaméral, de recueils de proverbes, de poèmes d'amour, d'épopées héroïques, de listes de plantes pharmaceutiques remontant à 5000 ans avant notre ere.
February 11, 2018
Kitap günümüze değin bulunmuş ve çözümlenmiş Sümerlilere ait çivi yazısı tabletleri üzerinden Sümerlilerin tarihteki ilklerini ve tarihe katkılarını anlatıyor.
Yazar her bölümde konuya dair tabletten birebir alıntılanmış metinlere yer veriyor.
Metinler sayesinde Sümerlilerin yaşantısını, düşüncelerini, inançlarını, dünyasını yakından görebiliyorsunuz. Özellikle birkaç bin yıl önceki düşünce sisteminin temelde bugünkünden çok da farklı olmadığını görmek insanı şaşırtmaya yetiyor.
Sümerlerin insanlığa ve uygarlığa katkıları çok fazla olmakla birlikte en büyük katkısı diğer mitolojileri (özellikle eski ahiti ve dolayısıyla modern dinleri) etkilemesi ve tabiri caizse temel oluşturması, kitapta ilerledikçe bunları da net şekilde görebiliyorsunuz.
Tarihe ve insanlığın gelişimine meraklı olanlara, insanlığın ürettiği ilk yazılı ürünlere göz atmak isteyenlere okumalarını tavsiye ederim.
Yazar her bölümde konuya dair tabletten birebir alıntılanmış metinlere yer veriyor.
Metinler sayesinde Sümerlilerin yaşantısını, düşüncelerini, inançlarını, dünyasını yakından görebiliyorsunuz. Özellikle birkaç bin yıl önceki düşünce sisteminin temelde bugünkünden çok da farklı olmadığını görmek insanı şaşırtmaya yetiyor.
Sümerlerin insanlığa ve uygarlığa katkıları çok fazla olmakla birlikte en büyük katkısı diğer mitolojileri (özellikle eski ahiti ve dolayısıyla modern dinleri) etkilemesi ve tabiri caizse temel oluşturması, kitapta ilerledikçe bunları da net şekilde görebiliyorsunuz.
Tarihe ve insanlığın gelişimine meraklı olanlara, insanlığın ürettiği ilk yazılı ürünlere göz atmak isteyenlere okumalarını tavsiye ederim.
April 23, 2022
Interesante y abrumador estudio sobre la civilización más antigua que se conoce, inventora de la escritura. Fabuloso viaje y presentado de tal forma a los que no somos expertos ni asiriólogos ni sumerólogos. Aunque tiene esquemas y ejemplos, siento que faltaron líneas del tiempo para contrastar los diferentes periodos de estas civilizaciones, junto a la babilónica, asiria y accadia, y mejorar la comprensión y experiencia de lectura.
April 19, 2021
Muazzez İlmiye Çığ ve Hatice Kızılyay'ın 1952'de kitabın yazarına Sümer tabletlerini okumada kayıt yapmada ve çözmede yardımları insanı hakikaten duygulandırıyor. Kitabın girişinde her iki kadın sümeroloğumuza teşekkür var. Muazzez hanım bir söyleşisinde Türkiye'den bir akademisyene sümer tabletlerini deşifrede yardım ettiklerini ama kişinin bırakın teşekkür etmeyi kendilerini akademik titri yok diye görmezden geldiğini anlatmıştı. Çok yazık cidden.
April 10, 2016
Read years ago and never forgot it. Amazing how so many things began at Sumer: first law code [Hammurabi], flood story [Gilgamesh], for instance!
March 18, 2023
Klasikinė šumerų civilizacijos, gyvavusios dabartinio Irako pietuose ir klestėjimo viršūnę pasiekusios III tūkstantmetyje prieš Kristų, gyvenimo ir įspūdingų laimėjimų studija. Autorius yra amerikiečių profesorius Samuelis Noah Krameris, kuris žinomas kaip garsiausias šumerų kultūros, rašto ir literatūros tyrėjas. Labai patiko mokslinių duomenų pateikimas visų tų „pirmąkart“, kuriuos mums paliko šumerai visose svarbiausiose žmonijos veiklos srityse. Profesionalo profesionalus darbas.
July 9, 2023
The history of civilization begins between two rivers in modern-day Iraq. Here a series of city-states arose that we now call the Sumerians and developed the first of mankind’s most-important innovations: writing. The late Samuel Noah Kramer, one of the most distinguished academics on Sumerian history and culture, wrote this wonderful account of the many firsts the Sumerians achieved in their literary career and its influence on later peoples in works like the Hebrews and Ancient Greeks. History Begins at Sumer describes and talks about 39 firsts Kramer had the honor to identify in his long academic career of translating ancient Sumerian texts. In each of these Kramer describes his globetrotting work visiting and working for Museums in Pennsylvania, Germany, Turkey, and Moscow translating their tablets for future generations of scholars. He provides appropriate historical context to each first he identified and the tablet it came from to best describe what it tells us about the Sumerians. Kramer does not skimp on providing primary sources to the reader, transcribing complete poems and hymns to the reader to complement the simplified summarizations he gives.
The firsts showcase a vast range of Sumerian life, from a description of Sumerian cosmology, the first ever described in human history, to the first aquarium and library catalog developed by man. Each of the first provides a fascinating and human connection to the Sumerians. Kramer underlines throughout his view that despite the millennia in between our lives and the Sumerians we share a great deal in common. We love, hate, and dream, follow charismatic leaders, sing praises to our gods, and lament the failings of our society. While some firsts may seem frivolous, like Shulgi of Ur being the first long distant champion, they highlight the shared values we and the Sumerians share, such as an admiration of athletics and physical prowess. Even the first aquarium shows a love for aquatic creatures shared by anyone today with a fishbowl. This book has power in it and is accessible to anyone with a basic knowledge of the Sumerians and Mesopotamia. I cannot recommend it enough as a highly informative and entertaining account of Sumerian history.
October 3, 2016
صمويل كريمر احد القامات في تاريخ الرافدين القديم وكما قال طه باقر وهو الذي كان تلميذ للمؤلف ومترجماً له هذا الكتاب بأن صمويل كريمر اهتم بنفسه في مجال ادب السومري بشكل خاص لذا الكتاب هو نتاج عمل هذا الرجل لعقود في مجال علم الآثار الخاص ببلاد الرافدين وخاصة في ادابها وتأتي هذه الترجمة من قبل الدكتور المميز طه باقر والذي له باع في هذا المجال ايضا وله دارسات عديدة ليكون موضوع الكتاب جديراً بأن يحرز اهدافه بمنهج علمي رصين
يبحث الكتاب كما هو موضوعه " من ألواح سومر " في موضوع الألواح المكتشفة باللغة السومرية ثم ترجمتها ، ومواضيع هذه الألواح مختصة بأدبيات قوم سومر وهم الذين يعتبرون اول من سكن بلاد الرافدين من الأقوام الماضية وإن كان ذلك ليس بالأمر الأكيد وهو ما تطرق إليه صمويل كريمر
والكتاب مقسم إلى عدة فصول كل فصل يخبرنا بجزء من هذه الأدبيات ففصل يتكلم عن ملحمة جلجامش وفصل يتكلم عن انشودة حب وآخر في ايام المدرسة وغيرها
دائما ما يتسائل في ذهني عن اول الاشياء وعن تتابع الأفكار من قوم إلى قوم ومن حضارة إلى حضارة والاقتباسات التي ما بينها وهذا يقدم لي جزء كبير من هذا الأمر ويثير تساؤلات وهي في نهاية الأمر هي نفس التساؤلات التي اثروها هؤلاء الأقوام السومريين
كتاب يستحق منك وقتك
يبحث الكتاب كما هو موضوعه " من ألواح سومر " في موضوع الألواح المكتشفة باللغة السومرية ثم ترجمتها ، ومواضيع هذه الألواح مختصة بأدبيات قوم سومر وهم الذين يعتبرون اول من سكن بلاد الرافدين من الأقوام الماضية وإن كان ذلك ليس بالأمر الأكيد وهو ما تطرق إليه صمويل كريمر
والكتاب مقسم إلى عدة فصول كل فصل يخبرنا بجزء من هذه الأدبيات ففصل يتكلم عن ملحمة جلجامش وفصل يتكلم عن انشودة حب وآخر في ايام المدرسة وغيرها
دائما ما يتسائل في ذهني عن اول الاشياء وعن تتابع الأفكار من قوم إلى قوم ومن حضارة إلى حضارة والاقتباسات التي ما بينها وهذا يقدم لي جزء كبير من هذا الأمر ويثير تساؤلات وهي في نهاية الأمر هي نفس التساؤلات التي اثروها هؤلاء الأقوام السومريين
كتاب يستحق منك وقتك
November 6, 2021
در این کتاب هر آنچه از الواح سومری کشف شده ترجمه شده است را می‌توانید بخوانید و تاثیر آنها بر متون دینی را نیز مورد نظر قرار دهید. در متون سومری داستانی چون داستان ایوب در کتاب مقدس و قرآن وجود دارد، داستانی چون داستان نوح، آفرینش انسان حتی متون عاشقانه و ادبی، متون سیاسی و قوانین، این الواح شامل کلمات انتزاعی چون آزادی نیز هستند پس مفاهیمی این چنین نیز در آن دوران مورد نظر و توجه قرار گرفته است. حتی فهرست متون الواح نیز تهیه شده. هنوز الواح زیادی مورد ترجمه و استنساخ قرار نگرفته‌اند. سیر تطور و تحول تمدن سیری بس جذاب است برای علاقمندان این حوزه.
February 5, 2022
Gracias por disponer en el mercado de este tipo de libros que dejan al margen de forma magistral la fantasía anunaki y las novelas inventadas con el único fin de sacar dinero.
October 8, 2016
Harika bir araştırma. Çevirmen kaynaklı anlam karışıklıkları olsa dahi,tam bir başvuru kaynağı. Geçmişin günümüze ne çok benzediğini anlama kılavuzu, üstelik Sümer mitleri birbirinden eğlenceli. Ufak bir tavsiye olarak kitabı ilginizi çeken bölümlerinden okumaya başlayın. Akıcı ve eğlenceli kısım orası. Şayet beğenirseniz, kitabın ilk yarısına devam edersiniz.
Read
January 6, 2017نحن نقول "شهادتي بيك مجروحة" وهذا ما يحدث بالضبط مع هذا الكتاب, لا أستطيع إيفائه حقه
أولاً لأنه بحث تأريخي مهم
وثانياً يحتاج الى مزاج طويل هادئ ويتجاوز الملل لأكماله, وهذا ما افتقده الآن بشدة
وثالثاً لأن دماغي مشوّش وأحتاج الى وقت آخر, كدراسة لمراجعته من جديد.
أولاً لأنه بحث تأريخي مهم
وثانياً يحتاج الى مزاج طويل هادئ ويتجاوز الملل لأكماله, وهذا ما افتقده الآن بشدة
وثالثاً لأن دماغي مشوّش وأحتاج الى وقت آخر, كدراسة لمراجعته من جديد.
March 29, 2018
Gracias amigo Roberto por la recomendación!
March 13, 2023
Nos melhores momentos interessante. Nos piores orientalista. Em demasiados uma seca
December 25, 2022
The premise is slightly inauspicious and I probably wouldn't have gotten this one if it hadn't been recommended to me by one of my professors, but Kramer is (was) a legitimate and apparently well-regarded Sumerologist, and while the book does get embarrassingly poppy in places, in its details it effectively represents the state of the field at the time it was written. Unfortunately that time was, for the most part, 1956, and while two subsequent revisions in 1959 and 1981 added fourteen more Firsts and a modest appendix of addenda and corrigenda to the original twenty-five, you don't have to have had too much exposure to Sumerology to feel the text teem with claims you know only show up in more recent works prefaced with "It was once believed that".
Each chapter deals with one First, and most are very straightforward: they lay out the subject (The First "Farmer's Almanac", The First Animal Fables, The First Lullaby), discuss a specific cuneiform tablet on which that is found (often with a drawing of the tablet in question), and provide a translation of that tablet.
Some get fancier, and these include the weakest First by far, which is also, unfortunately, one of the longest: Nº 24, Man's First Heroic Age. Here, Kramer finds a Heroic Age in Sumer's modest epics starring Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and (of course) Gilgamesh, and compares to the Greek, Indian, and "Teutonic" Heroic Ages, not letting his near-total lack of relevant expertise stop him from finding parallels between them. He "observes" that the Greek, Indian, and "Teutonic" Heroic Ages coincide with a period of national migrations (??), and that the relevant peoples are relatively primitive and tribal but, crucially, in contact with "a civilized power in the process of disintegration" (???), and that these factors are responsible for the characteristic features of the Heroic Age; he concludes that the same must therefore have happened in Sumer, and that the "Sumerian Problem"—whether or not Sumerians were the first settlers of Mesopotamia—has an obvious answer: no, they must have displaced a more advanced "Irano-Semitic" stage. (Why Irano-Semitic rather than literally anything else? Chauvinism, it seems.) Parts of this line of reasoning are obviously Hector Munro Chadwick's fault—he's named explicitly—and can be excused as once-fashionable folly, parts are clearly a non-expert greatly overestimating what he actually knows and freewheeling too enthusiastically (his claim that narrative poetry is too "individual in style and technique" to have been invented more than once and so Sumer must be the origin of epic poetry, for instance), but most of it is just so wildly out of pocket it must have been seen as fringe even at the time.
This really is an outlier, though, and the most you can hold against most of the others is that they tend to be pretty trivial or tend to suffer in execution from Kramer's preoccupations—apart from the "mini-maxi controversy", which returns a few times, he has the Bible on the brain, and while he deals with genuine parallels (The First "Noah", The First "Job") reasonably well, law codes, dragon-slaying myths, and lamenting goddesses really don't have to be called The First "Moses", The First "St. George", or The First Mater Dolorosa.
It's nice that Kramer always refers back to specific cuneiform tablets, but the insurmountable problem with a book of this age and nature is that it's impossible to judge how accurate the translations of those tablets still are. Sumerian wasn't deciphered until the late 19th century, and Kramer was part of only the second generation of Sumerologists—he seems to have done a tremendous amount of the work that went into our current understanding of Sumerian, but it's also undeniable that giants have stood on his shoulders, and even today, many areas of Sumerian grammar (let alone the lexicon!) are still hotly debated. Especially when it comes to the shorter tablets that, at the time of writing, saw no eyeballs other than Kramer's own, any understanding of Sumerian society derived from them must be seen as provisional.
Each chapter deals with one First, and most are very straightforward: they lay out the subject (The First "Farmer's Almanac", The First Animal Fables, The First Lullaby), discuss a specific cuneiform tablet on which that is found (often with a drawing of the tablet in question), and provide a translation of that tablet.
Some get fancier, and these include the weakest First by far, which is also, unfortunately, one of the longest: Nº 24, Man's First Heroic Age. Here, Kramer finds a Heroic Age in Sumer's modest epics starring Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and (of course) Gilgamesh, and compares to the Greek, Indian, and "Teutonic" Heroic Ages, not letting his near-total lack of relevant expertise stop him from finding parallels between them. He "observes" that the Greek, Indian, and "Teutonic" Heroic Ages coincide with a period of national migrations (??), and that the relevant peoples are relatively primitive and tribal but, crucially, in contact with "a civilized power in the process of disintegration" (???), and that these factors are responsible for the characteristic features of the Heroic Age; he concludes that the same must therefore have happened in Sumer, and that the "Sumerian Problem"—whether or not Sumerians were the first settlers of Mesopotamia—has an obvious answer: no, they must have displaced a more advanced "Irano-Semitic" stage. (Why Irano-Semitic rather than literally anything else? Chauvinism, it seems.) Parts of this line of reasoning are obviously Hector Munro Chadwick's fault—he's named explicitly—and can be excused as once-fashionable folly, parts are clearly a non-expert greatly overestimating what he actually knows and freewheeling too enthusiastically (his claim that narrative poetry is too "individual in style and technique" to have been invented more than once and so Sumer must be the origin of epic poetry, for instance), but most of it is just so wildly out of pocket it must have been seen as fringe even at the time.
This really is an outlier, though, and the most you can hold against most of the others is that they tend to be pretty trivial or tend to suffer in execution from Kramer's preoccupations—apart from the "mini-maxi controversy", which returns a few times, he has the Bible on the brain, and while he deals with genuine parallels (The First "Noah", The First "Job") reasonably well, law codes, dragon-slaying myths, and lamenting goddesses really don't have to be called The First "Moses", The First "St. George", or The First Mater Dolorosa.
It's nice that Kramer always refers back to specific cuneiform tablets, but the insurmountable problem with a book of this age and nature is that it's impossible to judge how accurate the translations of those tablets still are. Sumerian wasn't deciphered until the late 19th century, and Kramer was part of only the second generation of Sumerologists—he seems to have done a tremendous amount of the work that went into our current understanding of Sumerian, but it's also undeniable that giants have stood on his shoulders, and even today, many areas of Sumerian grammar (let alone the lexicon!) are still hotly debated. Especially when it comes to the shorter tablets that, at the time of writing, saw no eyeballs other than Kramer's own, any understanding of Sumerian society derived from them must be seen as provisional.
May 21, 2013
I skimmed it because it was rather Hebrew-Centric. I would have read it more carefully had there been some depth and meat to it, and there was, in a few places, but I just couldn't get into the side-projects of his. It's fun the first time you pick up a mythology and tie it to another to do a little skirt lifting, but it's another thing to base a whole book upon said skirt-lifting because, apparently, no reader in their right minds could attempt to understand such a culture without having to be hand-held by way of the one they grew up in.
Oh well.
Oh well.
July 29, 2019
Ancient civilizations fascinate me like nothing else but this book is so dull it took me half a year to finish. I was honestly surprised by how a book on such a fascinating topic could bore me this much. A chore to read, very hard to follow and isn't even all that informative. The Wikipedia page on Sumer is a tenfold more exciting read.
If you're looking to learn about Sumer, this book is not for you. If you want to read assorted translations of Sumerian clay tablets with some commentary that's neither insightful nor all that cohesive, go for it.
If you're looking to learn about Sumer, this book is not for you. If you want to read assorted translations of Sumerian clay tablets with some commentary that's neither insightful nor all that cohesive, go for it.
February 28, 2018
Sin duda alguna es una lectura que me ha resultado enriquecedora, aunque puede que en ocasiones un poco pesada. Si sois amantes de la historia, si os gustan los misterios, este es vuestro libro, aunque como he dicho al principio, da vértigo pensar lo similares que somos hoy día a estos hombres y mujeres.
Crítica completa en: https://alibreria.com/2018/02/28/la-h...
Crítica completa en: https://alibreria.com/2018/02/28/la-h...
March 24, 2018
Şayet dinler tarihini araştırıyorsanız veya Sümerolojiye ilginiz varsa bu konuda kafanızda oluşan soru işaretlerinin çoğunu cevaplayan şahane bir eser Tarih Sümer'de Başlar.
Kramer'i tanımama ve onun Sümerolojiye nasıl gönül verdiğini öğrenmemi sağladığı için de Sayın Gönül Alpay Tekin'e yürekten teşekkürlerimi sunarım.
İnanna size aşk getirsin ve yüce Enki sizinle olsun.!
Kramer'i tanımama ve onun Sümerolojiye nasıl gönül verdiğini öğrenmemi sağladığı için de Sayın Gönül Alpay Tekin'e yürekten teşekkürlerimi sunarım.
İnanna size aşk getirsin ve yüce Enki sizinle olsun.!
April 18, 2015
انصح كل من لديه ميل معرفة تاريخ وادي الرافدين
بقرائته، الاسلوب لغرض الدراسه أوالاستطلاع لذا قد تجدقليل من الممل بين طياتة...
بقرائته، الاسلوب لغرض الدراسه أوالاستطلاع لذا قد تجدقليل من الممل بين طياتة...
December 2, 2023
Nada mal, disfruté mucho de leer las traducciones directas de las tablillas y no sólo las interpretaciones.
September 18, 2024
Maravillosa obra, especialmente las referencias que hace a los orígenes de la literatura, es un libro introductorio a la cultura sumaria y de enorme riqueza para la humanidad
June 11, 2018
Skanu laikas nuo laiko paskaitinėti rimtesnę literatūrą. Pradėjus nuo "Gilgamešo epo" buvo tik dar skaniau sklaidyti puslapius ir susipažinti plačiau su Šumero kultūra. Suprasti, jog tos pačios problemos aktualios ir dabar. Jog jie pirmieji pastebėjo, užrašė tai, kas mums yra ir dabar aktualu ar savaime suprantama. 39 skyreliai, vieni trumpesni, kiti ilgesni, bet ne tik supažindins su kažkuo nauju, bet ir duos paskaityti originalų tekstą. Trūko tik paveikslėlių, meniškojo atvaizdavimo. O taip puikiai tinka kas nori praplėsti akiratį, bet neužsistresuoti su sunkiai parašytu tekstu.
August 3, 2022
Que forma tan boa de aprender Historia! Moitas veces divertido
December 14, 2022
Clásico de la historiografía y la divulgación científica. Muy interesante para quien guste de la historia de las primeras civilizaciones humanas. Los sumerios se adelantaron en tantas, tantas cosas...
July 30, 2009
Along with Edward Chiera, Samuel Kramer is one of the most influential of early English-language Sumerologists, in part because of his extensive fieldwork, and in part because he published several popular accounts of his findings. Looking at this book I expected something like an account of early cultural and agricultural developments (earliest plow, barn, religious altar, etc) but that's not what this book contains.
Kramer is a philologist and concentrates single-mindedly in this book on deciphering and explicating the Sumerian clay tablet literature. The book is a readable general introduction to basic genres and tropes of Sumerian literature, and is satisfying enough if one seeks nothing else.
I cannot love this book as it evidences flaws that are admittedly common in the early writings of Biblical-Archaeologists. First, his primary concern and point of reference for interpreting texts is Biblical, e.g. the most salient feature of the great myth cycle of Inanna's descent into the underworld is its early depiction of a resurrection.
Second, Kramer is extremely logocentric and displays a pronounced indifference to non-textual forms of evidence including architecture, pottery, statuary, tool artifacts, et cetera. He does not seem to regard texts as existing in any kind of historical context, or at least does not regard such information as important.
Third, Kramer regards clay tablets as purely literary artifacts and does not consider their possible use or relationship to liturgy or initiation rites. That strikes me as extraordinarily odd ... surely in 1954 when the book was published it was known that the recitation of Enuma elish on New Year's Day was the great high holiday of Babylon? I do not know if we have evidence of similar ceremonies performed Sumer but it certainly warrants consideration, and would cast most of the extant Sumerian literature in a considerably different light.
Fourth, Kramer evidences a prejudice throughout in which the Semitic Babylonians are regarded as more intelligent and more insightful than the Sumerians, and the Hebrews likewise above the Babylonians. Perhaps it doesn't even need to be said, but it seems odd to me that a man would study this literature for decades and still only be capable of regarding it as crude proto-Biblical material instead of having its own virtues and values.
Still, many of these were the faults of the time and it was an easy and stimulating read. A bit basic for anyone with more than a token familiarity with the literature.
Kramer is a philologist and concentrates single-mindedly in this book on deciphering and explicating the Sumerian clay tablet literature. The book is a readable general introduction to basic genres and tropes of Sumerian literature, and is satisfying enough if one seeks nothing else.
I cannot love this book as it evidences flaws that are admittedly common in the early writings of Biblical-Archaeologists. First, his primary concern and point of reference for interpreting texts is Biblical, e.g. the most salient feature of the great myth cycle of Inanna's descent into the underworld is its early depiction of a resurrection.
Second, Kramer is extremely logocentric and displays a pronounced indifference to non-textual forms of evidence including architecture, pottery, statuary, tool artifacts, et cetera. He does not seem to regard texts as existing in any kind of historical context, or at least does not regard such information as important.
Third, Kramer regards clay tablets as purely literary artifacts and does not consider their possible use or relationship to liturgy or initiation rites. That strikes me as extraordinarily odd ... surely in 1954 when the book was published it was known that the recitation of Enuma elish on New Year's Day was the great high holiday of Babylon? I do not know if we have evidence of similar ceremonies performed Sumer but it certainly warrants consideration, and would cast most of the extant Sumerian literature in a considerably different light.
Fourth, Kramer evidences a prejudice throughout in which the Semitic Babylonians are regarded as more intelligent and more insightful than the Sumerians, and the Hebrews likewise above the Babylonians. Perhaps it doesn't even need to be said, but it seems odd to me that a man would study this literature for decades and still only be capable of regarding it as crude proto-Biblical material instead of having its own virtues and values.
Still, many of these were the faults of the time and it was an easy and stimulating read. A bit basic for anyone with more than a token familiarity with the literature.
August 12, 2023
Sümer okulu yalnızca erkek öğrencileri kapsar gibi görünmektedir…
Sümerlerin giderek Sami kökenli Akadlarca fethedilmesinin bir sonucu olarak Sami fatihler Sümer edebi eserleri hazinesine kondular…
Ölüm bile vergi ve yükümlülüklerden kurtuluş sağlamıyordu. Gömmek için mezarlığa bir ölü götürüldüğü zaman, bir grup memur ailenin geri kalanından yemek ve eşya sızdırmayı kendilerine iş edinmişlerdi…
Sümer filozoflarına göre evrenin yaratılışının ilk gününden itibaren onu yöneten ve işleyişini sağlayan temel yasalar, kurallar ve düzenlemeler vardı…
Kitabı Mukaddes biçim ve içerik açısından, Yakın Doğu’daki ilk uygarlıklar tarafından yaratılan edebiyatlarla hiçbir benzerlik taşımaz. Öncellerinin durağan motiflerini ve gelenekselleşmiş örüntülerini insanlığın bilinen en çoşkulu ve dinamik edebi yaratılarına dönüştürmüş ve çok yerinde bir deyimle “İbrani mucizesi” olarak adlandırılan olguya yalnızca hayranlık duyulabilir…
Sümerlerin İbraniler üzerinde doğrudan bir etkileri olmadığı açıktır, çünkü İbranilerin tarih sahnesine çıkmalarından çok önce varlıkları sona ermişti. Ancak Sümerlerin, şimdi Filistin diye bilinen bölgede yaşamış İbranilerin öncelleri Kenanları ve onların komşuları olan Asurluları, Babillileri, Hititleri ve Aramileri derinden etkilediklerine kuşku yoktur…
Gılgamış Destan’ının onbirinci tabletini bulup, çözümlediği zamandan bu yana Kitabı Mukaddes’teki tufan öyküsünün bir İbrani yaratısı olmadığı bilinmektedir…
Derin anlamda ‘Gılgamış Destanı”nı bir Sami yaratısı olarak nitelemek yerinde olabilir. (Sami halkı; Nuh soyundan geldiğine inanılan Araplar, Yahudiler, Süryaniler, Maltalılar ve Aramilerdir)
Sümerler insan ve geleceğine ilişkin rahatlatıcı umutlar taşımıyorlarsı, tersine, insanların eskiden, çok uzun zaman öncesinde kalmış bir geçmişte mutlu yaşadıklarını düşünüyorlardı…
Nitelik konusuna gelince, ben de dahil çoğu araştırmacı, Sümer edebi eserlerinin duyarlılık, anlayış, derinlik ve sanatsallık açılarından Yunan ve İbrani klasiklerden daha geri düzeyde olduğu düşüncesinde birleşecektir…
İnanç ve görüşlerine göre, yeryüzündeki yaşamın, insanlığın, özellikle de Sümer ve halkının, refahı ve mutluluğunun kaynağı tanrılar arasındaki cinsel birleşmeydi…
Sümerlerin giderek Sami kökenli Akadlarca fethedilmesinin bir sonucu olarak Sami fatihler Sümer edebi eserleri hazinesine kondular…
Ölüm bile vergi ve yükümlülüklerden kurtuluş sağlamıyordu. Gömmek için mezarlığa bir ölü götürüldüğü zaman, bir grup memur ailenin geri kalanından yemek ve eşya sızdırmayı kendilerine iş edinmişlerdi…
Sümer filozoflarına göre evrenin yaratılışının ilk gününden itibaren onu yöneten ve işleyişini sağlayan temel yasalar, kurallar ve düzenlemeler vardı…
Kitabı Mukaddes biçim ve içerik açısından, Yakın Doğu’daki ilk uygarlıklar tarafından yaratılan edebiyatlarla hiçbir benzerlik taşımaz. Öncellerinin durağan motiflerini ve gelenekselleşmiş örüntülerini insanlığın bilinen en çoşkulu ve dinamik edebi yaratılarına dönüştürmüş ve çok yerinde bir deyimle “İbrani mucizesi” olarak adlandırılan olguya yalnızca hayranlık duyulabilir…
Sümerlerin İbraniler üzerinde doğrudan bir etkileri olmadığı açıktır, çünkü İbranilerin tarih sahnesine çıkmalarından çok önce varlıkları sona ermişti. Ancak Sümerlerin, şimdi Filistin diye bilinen bölgede yaşamış İbranilerin öncelleri Kenanları ve onların komşuları olan Asurluları, Babillileri, Hititleri ve Aramileri derinden etkilediklerine kuşku yoktur…
Gılgamış Destan’ının onbirinci tabletini bulup, çözümlediği zamandan bu yana Kitabı Mukaddes’teki tufan öyküsünün bir İbrani yaratısı olmadığı bilinmektedir…
Derin anlamda ‘Gılgamış Destanı”nı bir Sami yaratısı olarak nitelemek yerinde olabilir. (Sami halkı; Nuh soyundan geldiğine inanılan Araplar, Yahudiler, Süryaniler, Maltalılar ve Aramilerdir)
Sümerler insan ve geleceğine ilişkin rahatlatıcı umutlar taşımıyorlarsı, tersine, insanların eskiden, çok uzun zaman öncesinde kalmış bir geçmişte mutlu yaşadıklarını düşünüyorlardı…
Nitelik konusuna gelince, ben de dahil çoğu araştırmacı, Sümer edebi eserlerinin duyarlılık, anlayış, derinlik ve sanatsallık açılarından Yunan ve İbrani klasiklerden daha geri düzeyde olduğu düşüncesinde birleşecektir…
İnanç ve görüşlerine göre, yeryüzündeki yaşamın, insanlığın, özellikle de Sümer ve halkının, refahı ve mutluluğunun kaynağı tanrılar arasındaki cinsel birleşmeydi…
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