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Specimen Dynamicum

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German, Latin

Unknown Binding

First published January 1, 1695

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About the author

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

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German philosopher and mathematician Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz or Leibnitz invented differential and integral calculus independently of Isaac Newton and proposed an optimist metaphysical theory that included the notion that we live in "the best of all possible worlds."

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, a polymath, occupies a prominent place in the history. Most scholars think that Leibniz developed and published ever widely used notation. Only in the 20th century, his law of continuity and transcendental homogeneity found implementation in means of nonstandard analysis. He of the most prolific in the field of mechanical calculators. He worked on adding automatic multiplication and division to calculator of Blaise Pascal, meanwhile first described a pinwheel in 1685, and used it in the first mass-produced mechanical arithmometer. He also refined the binary number system, the foundation of virtually all digital computers.

Leibniz most concluded that God ably created our universe in a restricted sense, Voltaire often lampooned the idea. Leibniz alongside the great René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza advocated 17th-century rationalism. Applying reason of first principles or prior definitions, rather than empirical evidence, produced conclusions in the scholastic tradition, and the work of Leibniz anticipated modern analytic logic.

Leibniz made major contributions to technology, and anticipated that which surfaced much later in probability, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics, and computer science. He wrote works on politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Various learned journals, tens of thousands of letters, and unpublished manuscripts scattered contributions of Leibniz to this vast array of subjects. He wrote in several languages but primarily Latin and French. No one completely gathered the writings of Leibniz.

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336 reviews101 followers
June 15, 2022
In 1695, G.W. Leibniz composed his Specimen dynamicum which, though unpublished during his lifetime, may be seen in retrospect as a concise statement of his mature views on the emerging field of classical mechanics. From our perspective, we tend to pigeonhole the entire discipline because we know that the questions it raises as to the innermost structure of matter receive an adequate answer only in the quantum theory developed since 1925, more than two centuries later. Two points are salient here: i) the seventeenth-century architects of classical mechanics weren’t aware about quantum mechanics but nevertheless wanted to engage the issues as best they could; ii) even after the so-called old quantum theory was superseded, the classical remains fundamental to grasping the quantum: for full justification of this claim, see for instance Eric J. Heller, The semiclassical way to dynamics and spectroscopy (published in 2019 by Princeton University Press and reviewed by us here).

Therefore there is a whole lot more to be extracted from the Specimen dynamicum than just the results in classical mechanics for which it is most remembered today. The Felix Meiner edition from as far back as 1982 (never reprinted) gives the original text, barely 40 pages in the Latin, alongside a facing translation into German. In addition, the team of editors provide a concise 12-page introduction supplying background material on the world-picture of the seventeenth century and 63 pages of explanatory end notes!

What was Leibniz’ context? Cartesian physics was prevalent all through the seventeenth century. Descartes had proposed rules of collision taking into account what he calls quantity of motion – a novel concept the ancients never hit upon. Newton’s Principia published in 1686 decisively established the concepts of inertia, mass and force beyond that of direct mechanical contact. Leibniz was closely connected with Huyghens but rules of collision and the controversy over the appropriate measure of force (linear momentum or kinetic energy?), though discussed to be sure in the Specimen Dynamicum, recede into the background here. What is really on Leibniz’s mind is idea of a dynamical plenum (q.v., our review of his Labyrinth of the Continuum). Why?

Descartes’ official stance on res extensa does not sit easily with the aim of supplying a dynamical description of the inner properties of matter; in his Principia Philosophiæ of 1644 – if one takes the trouble to consult the original! – one will find that despite what superficial popular accounts may suggest, which maintain indeed a hold over everyone’s imagination in much of the scholarly literature as well – there is more to Descartes’ physics than just extension and analysis of questions such as the true definition of velocity and measure of the quantity of motion [quantitas motus] = volume times velocity (NB, not mass times velocity, as Descartes is usually credited with). For Descartes wants to present an imaginative construction of what underlies the properties of bulk matter. To this end he speaks of particles of various sizes which press against one another and enter into various configurations. Think of emptying a pile of ball bearings into a can and stirring it etc.: the assemblage would behave roughly like an incompressible fluid. As for the interstitial spaces, one could suppose one had ball bearings in a variety of sizes so that the smaller ones could squeeze into the pores between the larger ones and in the limit all of the volume could be filled. Such at any rate is how this reviewer pictures what Descartes wants to say, although nobody ever speaks about it in such plain terms.

How would Leibniz critique this paradigm? It is not really fully dynamical and couldn’t account for phenomena of chemical bonds, elective affinity, reactions and so forth. What is Descartes missing? A mechanistic theory, having an insufficiently rich concept of force, has to take the bulk properties of matter as a given input, unquestioned and underivable. As Leibniz presumes,

Et sic legibus naturae motricis constituendis, et mathematicas et metaphysicas rationes intervenire judicavi, esseque adeò collocandas in corporibus non tantùm res purè mathematicas, vel materiales, massam scilicet extensam, et huius limitationes mutationesque (figuras nempe et motus) sed et quoddam principium superius, et ut sic dicam formale, per quod mutationes illae secundum metaphysica causae effectusque vel actionis et passionis axiomata ad rationes ordinis accomodentur. [And so I judged that in order to frame nature’s laws of motion, both mathematical and metaphysical considerations would intervene, and that in bodies, not purely the mathematical but also the material, should be called an extended thing and along with their boundaries and changes (that is, figure and motion) one should posit a superior and, so to speak, formal principle, by means of which those changes may be accommodated to a rational order corresponding to the metaphysical axioms of cause and effect or action and passion, pp. 74-76]

The concept at which Leibniz is aiming could be termed a dynamical plenum = in twenty-first-century jargon, a phase of matter constituted by the interplay among forces subject to the given conditions. That is why Leibniz introduces his celebrated distinction between primary versus derived force. The former is what prevails at the microscopic level, while the latter corresponds to an effective phenomenological description that arises by contracting the level of detail. Remember, at this early date, primary force is a strictly speculative notion; not until Poisson and Ampère do we get a plausible candidate for what it could be. To go from primitive to derived force [pp. 131-134] requires quantification, i.e. selection of an appropriate measure. Huygens arrived at the square of velocity through strictly mathematical considerations. As an aside it should be pointed out that Leibniz’s concept of living force [vis viva, p. 77] is not simply reducible to our kinetic energy as it includes components of both primary (what could be called the Neoplatonic ideal limit) as well as derived force postulated by conditionality. Re. this see also pp. 98-101, where he speaks of conatus/nisus – inherently dynamical notions that are altogether absent in the mechanistic world-view.

This whole circle of ideas is precious since, while Leibniz lacks the exactitude of the French mathematical physicists a century after his time, it motivated for him the very discovery of the differential and integral calculus. Leibniz’ route differs then from Newton’s: the latter contends that he can derive force from the phenomena, while the former does just the opposite.

Re. Aristotle’s distinction between a first and second entelechy. Here, entelechy = specific form of the organization of the internal degrees of freedom of a body that make it into the kind of thing it is (this reviewer would embrace a stance closer to Leibniz’s understanding than Aristotle’s). For Aristotle, entelechy has to do with the soul, or substantial form of the body, and its activity to realize its essence. For Leibniz, on the other hand, entelchy as primitive force seems to be more original and not so expressly directed to a goal in the future. The editors of the Felix Meiner edition explain all this better than we can so it will be well to quote them at length:

Zweimal erläutert L. die ‘vis activa primitive’ durch den Begriff der Entelechie. Andernorts spricht er auch von ‘beseelten Punkten’ beziehungsweise wie hier, von ‘substantiellen Formen’ oder ‘Seelen’, denen die ἐντελέχεια ἡ πρώτη (erst Entelechie) entsprechen soll. Begrifflich handelt es sich um eine Anleihe bei der aristotelsichen Ontologie der Seele. Allerdings betont L. in der Schrift ‘Systeme nouveau’, die ebenfalls 1695 erschien, daß er, anders als Aristoteles, den Akzent auf die ursprüngliche Tätigkeit (force primitive) lege und die Entelechie nicht nur als Ergänzung zur Möglichkeit begreife. Bei Aristoteles beschreibt ἐντελέχεια die Wirklichkeit einer Bewegung, deren Wesen es ist, ein im Prozeß begriffenes sich Verwirklichen einer Möglichkeit zu sein. Nach der aristotelischen Physik liegt der Akzent dabei auf der Wirklichkeit der Bewegung (etwa eines Hausbaus), insofern diese Bewegung unvollendet ist. Gleichwohl trägt dieser Bewegungsprozeß die Vollendung, das fertiggebaute Haus, als Möglichkeit in sich, indem er sich auf ihre Wirklichkeit erstreckt.

Als erste Entelechie bezeichnet Aristoteles in seiner Schrift ‘Über die Seele’ den Zustand, in welchem ein Vermögen die Disposition zur Vollendung einschließt. So ist etwa der Mensch ein Wesen, das nicht nur durch die Möglichkeit, wissend zu sein, ausgezeichnet ist; sondern der Mensch kann, wenn er wissend ist, also im Besitz eines bestimmten Wissens befindet, als im Zustand der latenten Wissenhabe bezeichnet werden. Dieses ist die ‘erst Entelechie’ im Unterschied zur zweiten, dem Wissensvollzug selber, oder der Anwendung des Wissens. Wichtig ist dabei, daß schon die erste Entelechie mehr ist als die von L. abgelehnte Bedeutung von Möglichkeit als ruhender Disposition oder Passivität. Die erste Entelechie ist nach Aristoteles nämlich nur in möglicher Weise. Beide Entelechien des Aristoteles aber bezeichnen das sich Beziehen auf ein Ziel, eine Vollendung hin, die noch nicht erreicht ist. Die erste Entelechie has das Wissen noch nicht angewandt, und die zweite kennzeichnet einen Prozeß-modus, der als Erhaltung beschrieben werden kann, im Falle des Wissens also als Wissenserhaltung durch Anwendung des Wissens.

Obwohl L. sich ausdrücklich auf die erste Entelechie bezieht, nimmt er den aktuellen Charakter beider Entelechien des Aristoteles mit auf: Entelechie als ‘force primitive’ ist ein wirkliches Vermögen (vis) von etwas mit der Tendenz zur Entfaltung, wie das Wissen auch. Und sie ist zugleich Tätigkeit (activa), sofern sie als Quelle die derivativen, die lebendigen Kräfte also, hervorbringt. Dieser letzte Aspekt entspricht direkt der lebenserhaltenden Funktion der Entelechie in ihrer Funktion als Seele bei Aristoteles….Diese Analogisierung von Entelechie und vis active als ‘principium motus’ entspricht L.’ These im Text, daß dem Begriff der materialen Masse ein ‘principium quoddam superius’ hinzufügen sei.

Von der aristotelischen Fassung der Entelchie unterscheidet sich diejenige von L. in zweierlei Hinsicht. Zum einen denkt L. die Entelechie nach der Tradition des arabischen Aristotelismus eher als ‘perfectihabia’. Das heißt, in der Entelechie ist die Einheit aller Phänomene, beziehungsweise in der vis activa primitiva die Einheit aller derivativen Kräfte als Konzentrat zu denken. In diesem Sinne ist die Entelechie Einheit und Vollkommenheit in einem. Bei Aristoteles hingegen findet Erfüllung nur der Möglichkeit nach (δυνάμει) statt. Als Möglichkeit aber nicht als Wirklichkeit ist Vollkommenheit präsent. Die Entelechie hat hier gerade ihren Sinn im ‘noch nicht’ des Ziels. Zum anderen interpretiert L. gerade auch den Begriff der dynamis als Entelechie (‘...in entelechiis seu τῷ δυναμιϰῷ sita sunt principia Mechanismi quo omnia in corporibus regentur’). Bei Aristotles hingegen ist dynamis ein wesentliches Merkmal der Entelechie. L. aktualisiert sie zur vis activa. Aristoteles dynamisiert wirkliche Bewegung, indem er ihr Ziel als ausstehend begreift.

Dennoch ist die vis activa nicht als reiner, in sich ruhender, intelligibler Kräftekosmos zu verstehen. Die Entelechie als vis activa primitiva enthält als Totalität in sich, was je vereinzelt erscheint. Die vereinzelten Erscheinungen sind die vires derivativae. Sie sind resultationes, modificationes und in diesem Sinne Akzidenten einer unkörperlichen, gleichwohl als Verkörperung sich entwickelnden Substanz. So wie Körper ursprünglich als Verkörperung von Monaden in der sichtbaren Welt zu denken sind, so sind derivative Kräfte jeweilige Manifestationen einer ‘Grundkraft’ im phänomenalen Bereich. Sowenig, wie L. im Bereich der lebendigen Kräfte Gegenwartszustände in völliger Abgeschlossenheit kennt, sowenig ist der metaphysische Ort der Entelchie als isolierte Position zu denken. Vielmehr liegt gerade darin der Sinn von ‘Entelechie’, daß die metaphysische Substantialität der vis activa primitiva nur ist, was sie ist in Einheit mit der sich in zeitlicher Entwicklung äußernden lebendigen Kraft. In diesem Sinn ist die Wissenschaft von der Dynamik bei L. eine ‘science mixte’. Entelechie bezeichnet terminologisch auch das Band, das zwischen vis activa primitiva und den vires derivativae vorauszusetzen ist. Ursprünglich primitiv, ‘activité originale’ ist die Entelechie, sofern sie in allen lebendigen Kräften wirksam bleibt und sich als diese erhält. [pp. 124-127]

Anything else notable in the Specimen Dynamicum? As noted above, Leibniz is not content just to lay down a few foundational laws of classical mechanics, to which we today still have recourse, but wants to comprehend by their means all the phenomena of everyday physics, among them elasticity, solidity and cohesion. Leibinz’ theory of solidity is interesting because Descartes, in contrast, thought there was no need for cohesive forces but merely relative motionlessness. In the paraphrase of the editors:

Die Kraft wird als die Begründung für das Trägheitsgesetz gesehen; und zwar erfolgt aus der Erfahrung der Kraft nicht nur die Konstanz des Betrages der Geschwindigkeit, sondern insbesondere auch die Erhaltung der Richtung (Geradlinigkeit). Die Kraft nämlich ist Ursache für den Drang (nisus), dem als differentielle Größe nur eine Richtung, aber keine Krümmung zukommen kann, Eine Abweichung von einer geradlinigen Bewegung kann also nur durch das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Kräfte zustandekommen. [pp. 151-153]

Re. the all-important role of the law of continuity, the editors note the following:

Damit wird das Kontinuitätsgesetz zu einmen methodischen Prinzip für die Physik. Es drückt aber mehr als die bloße Stetigkeit einer Funktion im modernen Sinne aus. Man könnte aus einer strengen Interpretation der Kontinuität zu dem Ergebnis kommen, daß nach Leibnizen nur glatte, unendlich oft differenzierbare Kurven zur Beschriebung von Naturphänomenen zugelassen sind. Aus der Tatsache, daß “die derivative Kraft der gegenwärtige Zustand selbst (ist), sofern er einem folgenden zustrebt oder diesen im voraus involviert...”, scheint dies insofern hervorzugehen, als nur glatte Kurven eine Bestimmung der gesamten Kurve aus jedem ihrer Abschnitte erlauben. [cf. pp. 144-145]

In fact, Leibniz derives the proposition that the ricochet results from elasticity from his principle of continuity [cf. pp. 143-144].

What does Leibniz mean by spontaneity?

Etsi enim vis aliquid reale et absolutum sit, motus tamen ad classem pertinet phaenomenorum et respectivorum, et veritas non tam in phaenomenis quam in causis spectatur. [Even if force were something real and absolute, motion would nevertheless still belong to the class of relative phenomena and anyway truth ought to be sought not so much in the phenomena as in the causes, p. 44]

Then he explains why the derived (passive) forces constituting a body can be called spontaneous [cf. p. 142].

Let us strive in closing to indicate how the Specimen Dynamicum must appear in light of its potential relevance to current concerns. Leibniz’ progeny comprise Ørsted/Schelling. Their view of chemistry as the science of the ultimate constitution of bulk matter encompasses far more than the circle of ideas to which we limit the discipline today – atomic and molecular structure; various kinds of bonds, covalent, ionic, hydrogen, van der Waals; chemical reactions, perhaps in physical chemistry, electronic, vibrational and rotational spectroscopy etc. but hardly anything pertaining to the strong and weak nuclear forces etc.

So would Leibniz’ program = elementary particle physics, the Higgs mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking and so forth? Certainly these things belong within its ambit, but it strives to encompass far more, for elementary particle physicists themselves, who purpose to descend to the lowest levels in the graded hierarchy of reality, scarcely ever give more than lip service to the ascent back to the world of everyday experience. This venture they hand off to the condensed-matter physicists. Hence, due to disciplinary compartmentalization, no one is left to pursue Leibniz’ program in its full force, to the detriment of progress. What would be involved if a present-day researcher were to take a serious and not just antiquarian interest in the Specimen dynamicum, then, would be to pay attention to Leibniz’ ideas as speaking to our current concerns. In other words, to go beyond the residue of them left behind after their assimilation into the received tradition of classical mechanics and to recover their original urgency. Perhaps also, to translate notions such as primary and derived force, first and second entelechy and so forth into terms comprehensible to a twenty-first-century physicist. Just as with Descartes’ Principia Philosophiæ (a moment ago covered by us in a companion review), what matters if these dated scientists’ systems of natural philosophy are once again to become consequential in the contemporary context is not so much any specific models, long since surpassed, as the spirit that animates their investigations. For philosophy is perennial; old ideas are always apt to reappear in new guises. That means, for any beginning doctoral candidates out there, the possibility of engaging in original systematic thought and not just in becoming another cog on a wheel in the current academic machine and turning out a few more routine iterations of whatever may be the fashionable hot topics in string theory, loop quantum gravity and what have you.
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