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Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox
Smallpox is the only infectious disease to have been eradicated, but the virus still exists in laboratories. Following a 1992 revelation that the Soviet Union had secretly developed smallpox into a military weapon, officials around the globe expressed concern that samples of the virus could fall into the hands of "rogue" states and terrorist organizations. Since vaccination stopped in 1980, most of the world is now susceptible to infection. Tucker (Monterey Institute of International Studies) provides a history of the horrific disease and analyzes urgent efforts by the US and other countries to strengthen their medical defenses against it. Annotation c. Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)
304 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 2001
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July 19, 2022
A sublime chronicle of the spread of smallpox and the subsequent efforts to eradicate it.
Did you know that Abraham Lincoln was in the early stage of smallpox when he gave the Gettysburg Address? Did you know that even during the most chilling years of the Cold War, the US and Soviet Union collaborated in the smallpox eradication campaign?
These amazing facts are just a tiny bit of the information in the book Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox by Jonathan B. Tucker.
It begins with the origins of the disease, the first hosts of which were rodents. African hunters got the virus by eating infected animals, but the virus died out quickly because the communities were small and isolated. With the growth of population and increasing interaction between continents, the virus started to spread.
It's hard to expect a detailed account from a broad overview, clearly targeting people with no prior knowledge of the disease. However, the author did go into specifics around chapter eight. And that's when the book lost its appeal to me. The narrative got bogged with politics, focusing on the mistrust between the countries, every superpower or aspiring superpower suspecting that its counterparts were using smallpox to create biological weapons. One chapter was dedicated to the efforts of the Soviet Union in this regard (aka making biological weapons); another underscored grumbles within different departments of the American government. I still managed to get to chapter twelve and was surprised to hear about a learning experiment at the beginning of the 21st century: an outbreak of highly contagious smallpox in the USA caused by a terrorist bio-attack. The description of the experiment reads like it was written in 2020, with its lack of vaccines, civil unrest, and even a black market of fake vaccination certificates.
What a pity we don't learn from history! (I also remember reading about an experiment at Pearl Harbor conducted ten years before 1941 that showed unpreparedness against air bombardment.)
(It was an audiobook. I don't know how other listeners write down people's or organizations' names after hearing them. I struggled during the whole book to understand what organization the author meant: it sounded like See Double U Chow. It turned out to be WHO.)
Did you know that Abraham Lincoln was in the early stage of smallpox when he gave the Gettysburg Address? Did you know that even during the most chilling years of the Cold War, the US and Soviet Union collaborated in the smallpox eradication campaign?
These amazing facts are just a tiny bit of the information in the book Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox by Jonathan B. Tucker.
It begins with the origins of the disease, the first hosts of which were rodents. African hunters got the virus by eating infected animals, but the virus died out quickly because the communities were small and isolated. With the growth of population and increasing interaction between continents, the virus started to spread.
It's hard to expect a detailed account from a broad overview, clearly targeting people with no prior knowledge of the disease. However, the author did go into specifics around chapter eight. And that's when the book lost its appeal to me. The narrative got bogged with politics, focusing on the mistrust between the countries, every superpower or aspiring superpower suspecting that its counterparts were using smallpox to create biological weapons. One chapter was dedicated to the efforts of the Soviet Union in this regard (aka making biological weapons); another underscored grumbles within different departments of the American government. I still managed to get to chapter twelve and was surprised to hear about a learning experiment at the beginning of the 21st century: an outbreak of highly contagious smallpox in the USA caused by a terrorist bio-attack. The description of the experiment reads like it was written in 2020, with its lack of vaccines, civil unrest, and even a black market of fake vaccination certificates.
What a pity we don't learn from history! (I also remember reading about an experiment at Pearl Harbor conducted ten years before 1941 that showed unpreparedness against air bombardment.)
(It was an audiobook. I don't know how other listeners write down people's or organizations' names after hearing them. I struggled during the whole book to understand what organization the author meant: it sounded like See Double U Chow. It turned out to be WHO.)
July 19, 2018
A book that is broken into 3 parts, a brief history of smallpox , which is well done, the bulk of the book then deals with the WOrld Health Organization successful attempt to eradicate smallpox, this is when the book really drags, the read turns into a slog as it simply deals with the Bureaucratic wrangling and the reader finds themselves in their own Kafka nightmare, as the book goes into depth describing how one country eliminated a smallpox, It then repeats a near identical story how the WHO tackles smallpox in a another country, the book becomes too dry. Finally the book speculates on the potential of a smallpox bio terrorist attack. The book is an interesting topic that is spoiled by the author turning it into a dreary repetitive exercise.
March 6, 2023
A virus (—ahem‚—) can turn the course of history.
Smallpox was once a threat and still is a threat ... it is chilling to read about the corners of the world that still hold the smallpox virus, as well as the laboratories that keep some in stock — for research purposes. By almost eradicating this disease, the population has become more vulnerable. Smallpox is also high on the list of viruses that can be used or modified as biological weapons.
Scary book, gruesome and gripping. Disease has done more to shape human society than war, and smallpox remains one of those powerful forces, still lurking, waiting, a tiny powerful threat.
There is much to enjoy here in terms of medical history and science. The history of vaccines too is tied up with smallpox because the smallpox vaccine was successful and has over many decades been proven to work.
Fascinating book. So many facets of history can be viewed through the lens of smallpox. There are lessons to be learned here, about diligence, prudence, and caution.
Smallpox was once a threat and still is a threat ... it is chilling to read about the corners of the world that still hold the smallpox virus, as well as the laboratories that keep some in stock — for research purposes. By almost eradicating this disease, the population has become more vulnerable. Smallpox is also high on the list of viruses that can be used or modified as biological weapons.
Scary book, gruesome and gripping. Disease has done more to shape human society than war, and smallpox remains one of those powerful forces, still lurking, waiting, a tiny powerful threat.
There is much to enjoy here in terms of medical history and science. The history of vaccines too is tied up with smallpox because the smallpox vaccine was successful and has over many decades been proven to work.
Fascinating book. So many facets of history can be viewed through the lens of smallpox. There are lessons to be learned here, about diligence, prudence, and caution.
April 30, 2015
Smallpox was a far greater killer than the plague, but is fading from memory after its successful elimination. This well-written book covers the history and the suspenseful drive to risky variolation, safer vaccination, and the eventual end to the scourge. Smallpox killed about 1/3 of its victims and is easily spread by inhalation. Names like D.A. Henderson are now not well known, but should be, for freeing humanity of its greatest viral killer. At a small cost, smallpox was isolated and destroyed via efforts of the WHO and member states, including the USSR and USA- who managed to cooperate in this one vital area during the Cold War.
The later part of this book focuses on the aftermath of the seeming end of smallpox. A secret and illegal Soviet biological weapons program worked to develop a super-smallpox and continued through the dismemberment of the Soviet Union. The US and Soviet Union held the only two remaining live smallpox viruses, ostensibly for scientific research.
For decades, much of the world has demanded these final stocks be destroyed, finally freeing the Earth of the killer. Yet, the superpowers have been caught in the classic prisoner's dilemma, unsure the other would really destroy all their stocks, given the possible military advantage. Some scientists want to retain the virus in anticipation that another virus, such as monkeypox, will evolve into the void left by smallpox. Concerns about mislaid smallpox cultures, forgotten in a vial in some academic freezer, or held in secret by a rogue state, colored the debate. In fact, this book touches on the topic of Iraq, which was thought to have WMD, likely including smallpox, which was one of the reasons for the Second Iraq War. Lastly, there is a fear smallpox could be reintroduced by digging up a victim buried in the permafrost.
The book ends on a bittersweet note. Eradicating smallpox was an epidemiological grand achievement. But, in the unlikely event the American or Soviet stocks are ever breached, or smallpox is released by a terrorist, the world is less prepared than it was because immunity fades quickly, and the world has a dreadfully low vaccination supply. Could smallpox be reintroduced? If so, a smallpox pandemic might lead to tens or even hundreds of millions of deaths. Which is why I think the final known viral stocks should be destroyed.
The later part of this book focuses on the aftermath of the seeming end of smallpox. A secret and illegal Soviet biological weapons program worked to develop a super-smallpox and continued through the dismemberment of the Soviet Union. The US and Soviet Union held the only two remaining live smallpox viruses, ostensibly for scientific research.
For decades, much of the world has demanded these final stocks be destroyed, finally freeing the Earth of the killer. Yet, the superpowers have been caught in the classic prisoner's dilemma, unsure the other would really destroy all their stocks, given the possible military advantage. Some scientists want to retain the virus in anticipation that another virus, such as monkeypox, will evolve into the void left by smallpox. Concerns about mislaid smallpox cultures, forgotten in a vial in some academic freezer, or held in secret by a rogue state, colored the debate. In fact, this book touches on the topic of Iraq, which was thought to have WMD, likely including smallpox, which was one of the reasons for the Second Iraq War. Lastly, there is a fear smallpox could be reintroduced by digging up a victim buried in the permafrost.
The book ends on a bittersweet note. Eradicating smallpox was an epidemiological grand achievement. But, in the unlikely event the American or Soviet stocks are ever breached, or smallpox is released by a terrorist, the world is less prepared than it was because immunity fades quickly, and the world has a dreadfully low vaccination supply. Could smallpox be reintroduced? If so, a smallpox pandemic might lead to tens or even hundreds of millions of deaths. Which is why I think the final known viral stocks should be destroyed.
July 5, 2016
I read this book as background research for my next novel. Complete, accurate information in an easy-to-read style.
January 7, 2021
The first half was very interesting and focused on the actual eradication. The second half is very political focusing on what's been going on since it was considered eradicated.
May 20, 2019
super interested.
March 7, 2022
Reading this book from 2002 in 2022 was a trip. Living through the COVID-19 global pandemic in real time, it was interesting to me to see the author's predictions pertaining to a future pandemic (smallpox in this case, but similar in many ways in terms of how the world reacts to it). Much of what the author projected was accurate, but they also missed some things (namely the rise of anti-vax/anti-protection sentiment) that I think could have been foreseen given the hesitancy around vaccines and protections encountered when smallpox was endemic. Regardless of these details, though, it was both refreshing and depressing to read this book at this point in history. Refreshing because it was nice to know that humans haven't just become terrible and selfish in the past handful of years: people reacted selfishly to the spread of smallpox, too. Depressing because SO MUCH OF THIS COULD BE FORESEEN AND THE US DID NOTHING.
August 29, 2016
This book is a not so bad continuation of The Speckled Monster, with a decent amount of details about the actual smallpox eradication campaigns that occurred. I'm not particularly convinced that smallpox will ever be the same sort of threat that it once was. It sounds to me like the containment efforts that happened in the waning days of the smallpox epidemic were decently well handled, and while global movement is a lot faster and more widespread, our technology has significantly improved as well.
Probably 3.5 stars. Recommended if you like the subject matter.
Probably 3.5 stars. Recommended if you like the subject matter.
June 17, 2009
So far at about halfway through, this is just all right. I thought it would have more historical information, but most of the book is about the eradication efforts in the mid-20th Century, which I already was fairly familiar with. So far, I'd pick almost any other pestilence book besides this one.
September 23, 2016
This book was ok. The first half read like a public health textbook, as did the sections about the international debate over destroying smallpox stockpiles. However, the discussion of bioterrorism was very interesting. Very scary stuff!
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May 10, 2020
October 24, 2014
Synopsis
In Scourge, Jonathan Tucker chronicles the process of finding and creating, in mass quantities, a vaccine for smallpox. He discusses in great detail the long process of vaccine creation, specifically the vaccine for smallpox. There is some basic discussion of the smallpox virus itself and its affects not only on the human body but the world population as well. Considered a scourge that has been eradicated from the world since 1980 by the World Health Organization, smallpox continues to pose a threat to the world. Tucker, presents the history of this virus from a political and strategic military perspective since its eradication in the 1970's. In terrifying detail, Tucker presents the discovery of a Soviet plan to use the virus as a biological weapon against the world. This discovery has forced countries to evaluate the safety in destroying stockpiles of the smallpox virus from which vaccines are created and tested on. But keeping stockpiles of the virus present other issues, for example, what would happen should the virus be stolen or mishandled? It's a difficult question and one that doesn't come with an easy answer since most countries stopped vaccinating their populations soon after the WHO considered the virus eradicated. The result: creation of vaccine also ceased and thus has left the majority of the world population as risk should an outbreak occur naturally or strategically planned by some group or country.
My Thoughts
This was a fascinating book to read. I've always found myself interested in learning about diseases and plagues throughout history and was very interested in seeing how one is eradicated from the world. The efforts to remove the threat of this virus was astounding. The process it took to get to the point of considering it eradicated was long and arduous for those involved. The dedication and perseverance of those involved is to be commended since for many of those involved it became a lifetime endeavor. In addition, I found the aftermath of the eradication to be enlightening if not surprising. Being someone who works for government, I have first hand knowledge of the bureaucracies involved in government decision making. It often feels that those who know what's best aren't the ones making the decisions. Sadly, that appears to also be the case here as well, which is both terrifying and disappointing. I'm not trying to imply that the decisions are easy, because they aren't but I do hope that all sides will be considered and that one government of the world won't dictate the course of action for the whole world. Don't worry about this book getting bogged down in a bunch of scientific terms as Tucker is very good at keeping the language simple enough for the layperson. Never once did I feel like I was in over my head in learning about this topic. Overall, a great read and highly recommended for anyone interested in scourges and vaccines that aid in eradicating them.
In Scourge, Jonathan Tucker chronicles the process of finding and creating, in mass quantities, a vaccine for smallpox. He discusses in great detail the long process of vaccine creation, specifically the vaccine for smallpox. There is some basic discussion of the smallpox virus itself and its affects not only on the human body but the world population as well. Considered a scourge that has been eradicated from the world since 1980 by the World Health Organization, smallpox continues to pose a threat to the world. Tucker, presents the history of this virus from a political and strategic military perspective since its eradication in the 1970's. In terrifying detail, Tucker presents the discovery of a Soviet plan to use the virus as a biological weapon against the world. This discovery has forced countries to evaluate the safety in destroying stockpiles of the smallpox virus from which vaccines are created and tested on. But keeping stockpiles of the virus present other issues, for example, what would happen should the virus be stolen or mishandled? It's a difficult question and one that doesn't come with an easy answer since most countries stopped vaccinating their populations soon after the WHO considered the virus eradicated. The result: creation of vaccine also ceased and thus has left the majority of the world population as risk should an outbreak occur naturally or strategically planned by some group or country.
My Thoughts
This was a fascinating book to read. I've always found myself interested in learning about diseases and plagues throughout history and was very interested in seeing how one is eradicated from the world. The efforts to remove the threat of this virus was astounding. The process it took to get to the point of considering it eradicated was long and arduous for those involved. The dedication and perseverance of those involved is to be commended since for many of those involved it became a lifetime endeavor. In addition, I found the aftermath of the eradication to be enlightening if not surprising. Being someone who works for government, I have first hand knowledge of the bureaucracies involved in government decision making. It often feels that those who know what's best aren't the ones making the decisions. Sadly, that appears to also be the case here as well, which is both terrifying and disappointing. I'm not trying to imply that the decisions are easy, because they aren't but I do hope that all sides will be considered and that one government of the world won't dictate the course of action for the whole world. Don't worry about this book getting bogged down in a bunch of scientific terms as Tucker is very good at keeping the language simple enough for the layperson. Never once did I feel like I was in over my head in learning about this topic. Overall, a great read and highly recommended for anyone interested in scourges and vaccines that aid in eradicating them.
May 27, 2014
Jonathan Tucker narrates a spell-binding story in amazing factual detail of smallpox. This deadly disease was heroically eradicated from our planet, along with its hideous, painful, disfiguring and often fatal characteristics. Many elderly citizens around the world bear the scar from smallpox vaccination, a practice now discontinued for the general population. The surprising history of how this came about was enlightening (Russia, not the US was the driving force behind it), and Tucker doesn't stop there. In its day, smallpox was the great scourge of the entire world, causing death, destruction and the ruin of entire civilizations. It was used as a biological weapon before the term was even invented. However, the most frightening part of this book happens after the world eradication of this disease, in the consideration of smallpox as a means of intentional mass destruction. Known and clandestine stocks of living virus still exist and continue to trigger urgent debates regarding their future. Your view of Variola Virus will never be the same after reading this excellent book.
Karen J. / Marathon County Public Library
Find this book in our library catalog.
September 26, 2014
Scourge is an informative, well-researched, and surprisingly readable overview of the history of smallpox. I was fascinated by early anecdotes of the disease and its treatment and found new heroes in the detailed chronicle of the intensified (and ultimately successful) global eradication campaign from the '60s and '70s. I found it difficult to get through the subsequent chapters covering the debate over whether to destroy the remaining laboratory samples, but I suspect that had more to do with my personal distaste for politics than the author's writing. After that brief uninteresting interlude, I was once again gripped by the development of smallpox as a biological weapon - especially the chapter describing a pretend attack against a fictional US city. I borrowed Scourge from the library, but I will definitely be buying a copy for my 'horrible diseases' collection.
I would recommend Scourge to anyone who has an interest in learning more about infectious diseases, smallpox, eradication, or bioweapons. Even squeamish people should be okay, as the book focuses on history rather than gruesome clinical details, and there are no pictures.
I would recommend Scourge to anyone who has an interest in learning more about infectious diseases, smallpox, eradication, or bioweapons. Even squeamish people should be okay, as the book focuses on history rather than gruesome clinical details, and there are no pictures.
September 19, 2008
Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox, by Jonathan Tucker, is an excellent primer on the long, gory history of a disease that’s not well understood today, even though it was doing damage since ancient times. Tucker takes the reader through Edward Jennings amazing discovery, through the worldwide eradication of the disease under the auspices of WHO, through the international debate as to whether or not to destroy the remaining stores of the virus, then lastly discusses the potential of the smallpox virus to be used as a biological weapon.
This is such a fascinating and accessible (yet concise) book. To learn of the many people involved in the concerted, coordinated and heroic effort to wipe out this horrific disease, culminating in the triumphant 1980 declaration that the disease had been eradicated from the earth, is nothing short of awesome. It’s also extremely scary to consider that rogue states and stateless actors could get a hold of the virus and create a chimeral doomsday plague.
This is such a fascinating and accessible (yet concise) book. To learn of the many people involved in the concerted, coordinated and heroic effort to wipe out this horrific disease, culminating in the triumphant 1980 declaration that the disease had been eradicated from the earth, is nothing short of awesome. It’s also extremely scary to consider that rogue states and stateless actors could get a hold of the virus and create a chimeral doomsday plague.
April 4, 2015
In 2015 the world powers continue to focus on the threat of nuclear proliferation. That is all well and good. Nuclear weapons are extremely destructive to infrastructure, people and other living things. However, communicable diseases are also disruptive to society. In the past disease ridden goods and bodies were used to infect the enemy and his population. Smallpox was among those diseases. Smallpox is very virulent and would devastate modern societies. Vaccination of people ended for most of the world in the 1980s. Vaccinations were only good for up to ten years at the max. If loosed in society today it would transform society, not for the better. This book gives a short history of smallpox from its suspected origins to the present day. Much of it concerns the attempt to eradicate smallpox from the planet. Perhaps the most interesting part is a recap of a training exercise run in the 1990s. I recommend this for those interested in emergency response planning as I do "Demon in the Freezer" by Richard Preston. [And the game "Pandemic."
July 20, 2011
This book is a biography of an epidemic - smallpox from its first occurrences until its eradication in the wild late in the 20th century. The discussion of how a smallpox plague works and how it affects subsequent generations in the population was terrific. It is clear that this has been a very influential disease. The public health campaign to eradicate smallpox was to me the highlight of the book and really enlightening. These sorts of campaigns are not frequently discussed. The potential for weaponizing smallpox - and the whole discussion of germ/bug warfare in light of the 9/11 attacks and the anthrax attacks the went on at the same time certainly got my attention and without doubt provided a larger market for this book than there would have been otherwise - short of Jared Diamond. It is a well written and informative book.
December 19, 2016
This was a fascinating, enlightening look at the history of small pox. The story is basically three acts, I: in antiquity, II: combating and defeat of small box, and III: political impediments to destroying remaining stockpiles. III is rather tedious and even disheartening. II stood out the most to me with Soviet Russia's successful internationalist instigation for a global effort to wipe out the disease and the engineering solutions of the US Army's jet injector and the bifurcated needle used during the World Health Organization's smallpox eradication campaign from 1966 to 1977.
November 6, 2013
This is neither a particularly good nor a particularly bad history of smallpox - throughout history, the creation of the first vaccine, the campaign to end smallpox infections, and finally the campaign to destroy the last remaining samples of the disease. If you've read anything about this subject before, you won't find anything new or exciting in here. In fact, the information is a bit dated - having been published over a decade ago, it can't comment on anything that has happened since 2001: terrorist attacks, supposed WMDs in Iraq, subsequent wars, etc. If you read only one book on smallpox, you might want to choose one that was written a bit more recently.
April 20, 2018
Well written and really interesting account of how Smallpox was contained by the WHO and some of the methods they used to control the spread. When Tucker gets into the reasons why Washington and Moscow refused to destroy the two remaining repositories of the disease, it brings out the worst in humanity and I don't think he handled the ethical questions raised very well. He's also very much an American homer, blaming the soviets for all potential bioterror and refusing to believe the US could be equally culpable in creating bioweapons of mass destruction. Kind of sad, but this book is definitely worth the read.
August 11, 2016
Interesting topic...I like unusual medical stuff and am one of those weirdos who watches videos of people pulling bot flies from their body.
The political dynamics involving the efforts to eradicate small pox was too detailed for me so I skimmed much of that. Pretty dry.
If you were born after 1970-72 it's highly likely you didn't get a small pox vaccine. Also, vaccines are generally only good for 10 years or so as evidenced by whooping cough (pertussis) outbreaks here in Ann Arbor in the past years. So next time you get a tetnus shot, make sure it has a pertussis vaccine in it too.
The political dynamics involving the efforts to eradicate small pox was too detailed for me so I skimmed much of that. Pretty dry.
If you were born after 1970-72 it's highly likely you didn't get a small pox vaccine. Also, vaccines are generally only good for 10 years or so as evidenced by whooping cough (pertussis) outbreaks here in Ann Arbor in the past years. So next time you get a tetnus shot, make sure it has a pertussis vaccine in it too.
November 30, 2013
Unlike most disease-history books I've read, the focus in smallpox is on the fight against it, and how the 20th century saw it utterly eradicated from the natural world (and it was much more of a job than I realized when it was happening). Tucker then follows the convoluted political debates that led to the USA and the USSR preserving smallpox virus samples in the lab on what Tucker shows are the debatable grounds this would be effective in the event someone finds a way to use smallpox for biowarfare. A very interesting read.
June 3, 2015
For a public health nerd such as myself, a book that details the eradication of smallpox in the world is a great read. It was informative and interesting to learn about how it all happened and the various players involved. I read about 1/2 to 2/3 and then skimmed the rest, as it was actually TOO much detail for me. If you want to know EVERY twist and turn and nook and cranny, this certainly has it. I didn't particularly care for the writing style, but it wasn't terrible or difficult to follow. All in all, I think that puts me at 3 stars.
September 3, 2017
Tucker provides a solid history on smallpox including its near eradication by the US and the USSR. He also describes the ongoing debate on whether to destroy the last remaining cultures very well. Unfortunately, the book was published in 2001, so Tucker doesn't address the potential for terrorists to start a pandemic in much depth. Aside from that limitation, the disaster test scenario he describes our leaders working through is scary enough that extrapolation to current threats isn't difficult. Definitely worth reading if you're concerned about bioterrorism.
May 15, 2008
Follows the smallpox eradication program and events subsequent. Interesting read, however, I expected more on the eradication campaign. More than half the book discusses the aftermath of eradication; and a hefty chunk of this records sociopolitical ramifications in laborious detail. 3.5 stars, really.
May 22, 2013
I had to do a paper on small pox and this book gave me alot of info that I needed to have a great A+ paper. It is not just for information but for entertainment also so you won't be reading fact after fact. He uses some jokes here and there just to keep the reader interested even though fo some that may not be needed
July 2, 2018
Had read most of the material about early variolation and vaccination, but felt it was covered well here . Same with the information on the eradication campaign. The material on the controversy surrounding the destruction of the virus was all new to me, though and well presented. For a single volume covering most aspects of the virus, this one really informs without being exhaustive.
April 12, 2008
It's scary to think that any day, some terrorist may turn Smallpox into a weapon, and we'd all be vulnerable again. On the other hand, it shows what this world can accomplish if we are willing to cut through the red tape and work together.
May 24, 2008
A frightening account of the failure of both the US, USSR and the global health community to irradicate Smallpox and the very real and forgotten dangers its existence still poses to human health.
Not for the faint of heart as some of the descriptions can be quite gruesome.
Not for the faint of heart as some of the descriptions can be quite gruesome.
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