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El Codigo de Hammurabi
El Codigo de Hammurabi, creado en el ano 1728 a. C. (segun la cronologia media) por el rey de Babilonia Hammurabi, es uno de los conjuntos de leyes mas antiguos que se han encontrado y uno de los ejemplares mejor conservados de este tipo de documentos creados en la antigua Mesopotamia y, en breves terminos, se basa en la aplicacion de la ley del Talion. Unifica los codigos existentes en las ciudades del imperio babilonico."
32 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1781
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Hammurabi
65 books31 followersHammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ʻAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer", from ʻAmmu, "paternal kinsman", and Rāpi, "healer"; died c. 1750 BCE) was the sixth king of Babylon (that is, of the First Babylonian Dynasty) from 1792 BCE to 1750 BCE middle chronology (1728 BCE – 1686 BCE short chronology). He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his father, Sin-Muballit, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire.
Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. These laws were inscribed on stone tablets (stelae) standing over eight feet tall (2.4 meters), of unknown provenance, found in Persia in 1901. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world.
Hammurabi is best known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the Code of Hammurabi. One of the first written laws in the world, the Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.
The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy. The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence. However, there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment.
A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash or possibly Marduk, and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring the laws to them. Parallels between this narrative and the giving of laws by Yahweh in Jewish tradition to Moses and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two. Fragments of previous law codes have been found. David P. Wright argues that the Jewish law used Hammurabi's collection as a model, imitating both its structure and content.
Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations, including the earlier Mesopotamian examples of Ur-Nammu's code, Laws of Eshnunna, and Code of Lipit-Ishtar, and the later Hittite code of laws.
Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in several U.S. government buildings. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. These laws were inscribed on stone tablets (stelae) standing over eight feet tall (2.4 meters), of unknown provenance, found in Persia in 1901. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world.
Hammurabi is best known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the Code of Hammurabi. One of the first written laws in the world, the Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.
The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy. The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence. However, there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment.
A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash or possibly Marduk, and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring the laws to them. Parallels between this narrative and the giving of laws by Yahweh in Jewish tradition to Moses and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two. Fragments of previous law codes have been found. David P. Wright argues that the Jewish law used Hammurabi's collection as a model, imitating both its structure and content.
Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations, including the earlier Mesopotamian examples of Ur-Nammu's code, Laws of Eshnunna, and Code of Lipit-Ishtar, and the later Hittite code of laws.
Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in several U.S. government buildings. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
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January 23, 2025
Hammurabi remained in power thanks to his tenacity and great political ability, knowing how to take advantage of the best possible game of skill through pacts and alliances with contemporary kings. One of his first concerns was the implementation of law and order in the country, foundations that led to the internal unity of his kingdom. With great patience, self-mastery, and much political tact, he builds, through his victories and achievements, piece by piece, his vast empire. The critical feature in Hammurabi's reign is righteousness (justice, this contemporary thereof). He made a great effort to reign justice, and citizens had the right to appeal to the king. In the time of Hammurabi, centralism reached its peak. It will preserve the Code's Text in almost all of it, which scraped and lost 35 to 40 legal articles. Laws to punish possible crimes committed during the judicial process (1-5). The rules that regulate the patrimonial right (6-126). And if the dead were the son, the law of retaliation applies (117) - Laws governing family law and inheritance (127-195). Laws to Punish Bodily Injury (196-214) Were the laws of bodily harm only the same as equals? The rules that regulate the rights and duties of individual classes: Doctors (215-223). Veterinarians (224-225). Barbers (226-227). Bricklayers (228-233). Boatmen (234-240). The laws regulate prices and wages (241-277).
That part of the code regulates the entire labor market. New laws governing the possession of enslaved people (278-282) Established specific rules concerning enslaved people.
The emphasis was on theft, agriculture, cattle ranching, property damage, murder, death, and injury. The punishment or penalty was different for each class. Laws do not tolerate excuses or explanations for errors or failures. The code was freely displayed in plain sight so that no one could plead ignorance of the law as an excuse. However, few people knew how to read at that time.
That part of the code regulates the entire labor market. New laws governing the possession of enslaved people (278-282) Established specific rules concerning enslaved people.
The emphasis was on theft, agriculture, cattle ranching, property damage, murder, death, and injury. The punishment or penalty was different for each class. Laws do not tolerate excuses or explanations for errors or failures. The code was freely displayed in plain sight so that no one could plead ignorance of the law as an excuse. However, few people knew how to read at that time.
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July 9, 2022282 'legal guidelines', that’s what this code of Hammurabi is, codified by one of the most famous Mesopotamian monarchs, dating from the early Babylonian period, ca 1750 BCE. To be precise, it are only 250 guidelines, because we can no longer read about thirty of them, and guideline 13 even was deliberately left out (yes, already an unlucky number). The rules—I purposely don't use the term "laws"—are grouped more or less by theme, and all follow the "if-then" form. A simple example: "If anyone steals property from a temple or the royal court, he will be killed, just like the one who received the stolen property." Clear and plain, and immediately an illustration of the severity of the judgments. Note, they are not all that strict: Most crimes come with a lump sum, although this also depends on the social status of who commits the crime or who is the victim. But in general, the punishments are certainly not soft. So, you better not be a surgeon, because if you perform an operation (with an incision) and the patient dies, your hands will be cut off. Or if you are a mason who builds a house and if it collapses and the resident or his son die, you will be killed, unless… the victims are slaves.
Well, perhaps these examples feed the idea that things were very primitive and barbaric in those earliest times. But such a vision is a typical expression of modernist hybris: Hammurabi's code bears witness to cultural and moral depth in several respects. The mere maniacal tendency to carefully inventory which crimes and transactions can occur illustrates the 'systematic mind' at work in Mesopotamian culture (witness also the lengthy lexicographic lists of names of things and phenomena, or the rather precise astronomical observations). And, of course Hammurabi's code is a child of its time and reflects harsh social differences, but by all means it tries to be 'just', and to lay down appropriate punishments or compensation, sometimes even protecting the weaker actor in a transaction. At the same time, there is this curious universalist ambition: Hammurabi explicitly sees his code as a model for the world over which he ruled and beyond; that too refers to a sense of justice that has a surprisingly modernist feel. Finally, each of the almost 300/250 rules exudes the ambition to institutionalize the rule of law, no small feat when you consider common practices of blood feud in many cultures. There is so much more to tell about this very interesting text. I try to do this in my History Account on Goodreads: https://www.goodreads.com/review/show....
Well, perhaps these examples feed the idea that things were very primitive and barbaric in those earliest times. But such a vision is a typical expression of modernist hybris: Hammurabi's code bears witness to cultural and moral depth in several respects. The mere maniacal tendency to carefully inventory which crimes and transactions can occur illustrates the 'systematic mind' at work in Mesopotamian culture (witness also the lengthy lexicographic lists of names of things and phenomena, or the rather precise astronomical observations). And, of course Hammurabi's code is a child of its time and reflects harsh social differences, but by all means it tries to be 'just', and to lay down appropriate punishments or compensation, sometimes even protecting the weaker actor in a transaction. At the same time, there is this curious universalist ambition: Hammurabi explicitly sees his code as a model for the world over which he ruled and beyond; that too refers to a sense of justice that has a surprisingly modernist feel. Finally, each of the almost 300/250 rules exudes the ambition to institutionalize the rule of law, no small feat when you consider common practices of blood feud in many cultures. There is so much more to tell about this very interesting text. I try to do this in my History Account on Goodreads: https://www.goodreads.com/review/show....
October 9, 2012
The lesson I learned from this surprisingly early system of laws is this: if you do something even vaguely wrong it is likely that you '... shall be put to death.'
No wonder the empire lasted so long. People were shit-scared that their cow might wander into someone else's field!
But jokes aside, this was really enlightening in the sense that I never knew there existed such a well-thought out code of law (albeit a bloody one) to deter theft, vandalism, murder and slander, that hinged above all things on offering PROOF before you went to court. In other words, ancient Babylonian courts were jam-packed with people suing each other for damages. Or not, as might be the case, because if you DIDN'T have proof of someone being unlawful then guess what... yep, you guessed it! You could be 'put to death' yourself.
No wonder the empire lasted so long. People were shit-scared that their cow might wander into someone else's field!
But jokes aside, this was really enlightening in the sense that I never knew there existed such a well-thought out code of law (albeit a bloody one) to deter theft, vandalism, murder and slander, that hinged above all things on offering PROOF before you went to court. In other words, ancient Babylonian courts were jam-packed with people suing each other for damages. Or not, as might be the case, because if you DIDN'T have proof of someone being unlawful then guess what... yep, you guessed it! You could be 'put to death' yourself.
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July 10, 2022There is so much to say about this most famous legal text from the earliest antiquity (ca 1750 BCE). I don't know about the situation now, but certainly in the classical education of the past 2 centuries in the west it was stamped into almost every schoolchild that this is the oldest law book that we know, and that it is a textbook example of the 'eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth' principle. The knowledge of the pupils certainly did not go much further than that, and although its content was not far from the truth, it is not really correct either.
For starters, this isn't a real book in our sense of the word, it's not even a parchment scroll or a collection of papyrus (all of those scriptures date from centuries later). Hammurabi's code was incised in cuneiform in a stout basalt stela, a conically rising, dark stone. It even looks a bit like an earlier boundary marker, with on top an image of Hammurabi and the sun god Samash, god of justice, and below in very small characters the nearly 300 judicial principles, including an introduction and an epilogue.
Second: this is not the oldest known legal collection. The code of Ur-Nammu (see here) is over 300 years older, and that of Lipit-Ishtar (The Code of Lipit-Ishtar) over 100 years. Agreed, Hammurabi's is far more extensive, but both previous code’s are more or less put in the same legal formula ("if this...then this is the punishment or settlement"). Hammurabi's code also refers to a more complex society, in which sometimes complicated legal situations could arise.
Finally, that ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth-principle’ certainly is included in this code (even literally), and it also inspires many other rules, but even more than in the previous code’s a distinction is made between the social status of perpetrator and victim, and in many more legal rules fair compensation is pronounced as a settlement, rather than corporal punishment.
I read that in Assyriology (the scientific discipline that studies all of Mesopotamian history) there has been a lot of discussion over the past half century about the actual purpose of the code of Hammurabi. Is it a pure legal text, in other words a real codex, or merely a collection of concrete cases and judgments from the past, or even a model example of how legal judgments can be explicitly motivated? I am not a specialist, but this discussion seems very strange to me. Because if you read the texts carefully, you will notice that the Hammurabi code may have served these three purposes at the same time. The scope alone, and the breadth of the subject matter (basic principles of jurisprudence, criminal law, civil law, commercial law) indicate that a certain degree of completeness was pursued, so that this may nevertheless be called a code (strangely enough, premeditated murder is not touched upon). The formulation of most legal rules always takes a very concrete case as a starting point, and that is undoubtedly based on practices from the (recent) past, but the formulation is so compelling that it is clear that the penalty provision is presented as normative. And in that sense, this codex certainly also provides inspiration for the formulation of legal judgments. A triple goal, indeed.
I already referred to the complex society that lies behind this code. The very concrete formulation of the legal rules gives us a fairly good idea of the social, economic and even cultural background in which they functioned. And it is noticeable that some of those rules are so extensive that they betray an ambition to do justice (literally) to that complexity. Early Babylonian society (ca 1800-1600 BCE) was much less homogeneous than the previous Sumerian and Akkadian societies of the 3rd millennium: the ethnic composition was much more hybrid, especially due to the emergence of (semi)-nomadic peoples, each with their own culture, and the economy was much less centrally controlled, with more room for private enterprises in long-distance trade in particular. In this code, this is translated – for instance – into very long, detailed cases of trade transactions, what could go wrong with them and how that is to be solved.
On the basis of this code, a very mixed picture can be drawn about the position of women. They were clearly subordinate (most legal rules explicitly refer to men and possibly their sons). However, this codex contains numerous legal rules in which a certain degree of protection is offered to (first) wives, for example in the event of a divorce or the death of the husband (including a safeguarding of her property rights with regard to the children from the marriage). Of course, many other rules are rather denigrating towards women, especially when they were slaves.
What I personally find most interesting in this code is the introduction and especially the epilogue. Here, we hear Hammurabi himself boasting extensively of all his merits, his many conquests, and his piety in carrying out the will of the gods. But Hammurabi also expressly sets himself up as a protector of the weak, and actually calls himself “king of righteousness”. On this point he explicitly points out the function of his stela: “let the oppressed, who has a case at law, come and stand before this my image as king of righteousness; let him read the inscription, and understand my precious words: the inscription will explain his case to him; he will find out what is just, and his heart will be smooth”.
Finally, I can't resist to point to the last paragraph of the code. In it Hammurabi curses future kings who do not want to take his codex into account. What follows is a detailed listing of around 40 plagues that will afflict those miscreants. Or how a boring law book can also be quite entertaining.
For starters, this isn't a real book in our sense of the word, it's not even a parchment scroll or a collection of papyrus (all of those scriptures date from centuries later). Hammurabi's code was incised in cuneiform in a stout basalt stela, a conically rising, dark stone. It even looks a bit like an earlier boundary marker, with on top an image of Hammurabi and the sun god Samash, god of justice, and below in very small characters the nearly 300 judicial principles, including an introduction and an epilogue.
Second: this is not the oldest known legal collection. The code of Ur-Nammu (see here) is over 300 years older, and that of Lipit-Ishtar (The Code of Lipit-Ishtar) over 100 years. Agreed, Hammurabi's is far more extensive, but both previous code’s are more or less put in the same legal formula ("if this...then this is the punishment or settlement"). Hammurabi's code also refers to a more complex society, in which sometimes complicated legal situations could arise.
Finally, that ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth-principle’ certainly is included in this code (even literally), and it also inspires many other rules, but even more than in the previous code’s a distinction is made between the social status of perpetrator and victim, and in many more legal rules fair compensation is pronounced as a settlement, rather than corporal punishment.
I read that in Assyriology (the scientific discipline that studies all of Mesopotamian history) there has been a lot of discussion over the past half century about the actual purpose of the code of Hammurabi. Is it a pure legal text, in other words a real codex, or merely a collection of concrete cases and judgments from the past, or even a model example of how legal judgments can be explicitly motivated? I am not a specialist, but this discussion seems very strange to me. Because if you read the texts carefully, you will notice that the Hammurabi code may have served these three purposes at the same time. The scope alone, and the breadth of the subject matter (basic principles of jurisprudence, criminal law, civil law, commercial law) indicate that a certain degree of completeness was pursued, so that this may nevertheless be called a code (strangely enough, premeditated murder is not touched upon). The formulation of most legal rules always takes a very concrete case as a starting point, and that is undoubtedly based on practices from the (recent) past, but the formulation is so compelling that it is clear that the penalty provision is presented as normative. And in that sense, this codex certainly also provides inspiration for the formulation of legal judgments. A triple goal, indeed.
I already referred to the complex society that lies behind this code. The very concrete formulation of the legal rules gives us a fairly good idea of the social, economic and even cultural background in which they functioned. And it is noticeable that some of those rules are so extensive that they betray an ambition to do justice (literally) to that complexity. Early Babylonian society (ca 1800-1600 BCE) was much less homogeneous than the previous Sumerian and Akkadian societies of the 3rd millennium: the ethnic composition was much more hybrid, especially due to the emergence of (semi)-nomadic peoples, each with their own culture, and the economy was much less centrally controlled, with more room for private enterprises in long-distance trade in particular. In this code, this is translated – for instance – into very long, detailed cases of trade transactions, what could go wrong with them and how that is to be solved.
On the basis of this code, a very mixed picture can be drawn about the position of women. They were clearly subordinate (most legal rules explicitly refer to men and possibly their sons). However, this codex contains numerous legal rules in which a certain degree of protection is offered to (first) wives, for example in the event of a divorce or the death of the husband (including a safeguarding of her property rights with regard to the children from the marriage). Of course, many other rules are rather denigrating towards women, especially when they were slaves.
What I personally find most interesting in this code is the introduction and especially the epilogue. Here, we hear Hammurabi himself boasting extensively of all his merits, his many conquests, and his piety in carrying out the will of the gods. But Hammurabi also expressly sets himself up as a protector of the weak, and actually calls himself “king of righteousness”. On this point he explicitly points out the function of his stela: “let the oppressed, who has a case at law, come and stand before this my image as king of righteousness; let him read the inscription, and understand my precious words: the inscription will explain his case to him; he will find out what is just, and his heart will be smooth”.
Finally, I can't resist to point to the last paragraph of the code. In it Hammurabi curses future kings who do not want to take his codex into account. What follows is a detailed listing of around 40 plagues that will afflict those miscreants. Or how a boring law book can also be quite entertaining.
August 19, 2018
"So the strong should not harm the weak." - King Hammurabi in the prologue, explaining why he established the world's first law code. A fascinating peek into life at the dawn of civilization. FYI: There is no law #13 !
Some interesting laws:
-------------------------
# 128. If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him.
# 132. If the finger is pointed at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.
# 154. If a man be guilty of incest with his daughter, he shall be exiled.
# 157. If anyone be guilty of incest with his mother after his father, both shall be burned.
# 188. If an artisan has undertaken to apprentice a child and teaches him his craft, he can not be demanded back.
# 195. If a son strikes his father, his hands shall be hewn off.
# 218. If a physician makes a large incision with the operating knife, and kills the patient, or opens a tumor with the operating knife, and cuts out the eye, his hands shall be cut off.
# 224. If a veterinary surgeon performs a serious operation on an ass or an ox, and cures it, the owner shall pay the surgeon one-sixth of a shekel as a fee.
# 278. If anyone buys a male or female slave, and before a month has elapsed the benu-disease be developed, he shall return the slave to the seller, and receive the money which he had paid.
Some interesting laws:
-------------------------
# 128. If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him.
# 132. If the finger is pointed at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.
# 154. If a man be guilty of incest with his daughter, he shall be exiled.
# 157. If anyone be guilty of incest with his mother after his father, both shall be burned.
# 188. If an artisan has undertaken to apprentice a child and teaches him his craft, he can not be demanded back.
# 195. If a son strikes his father, his hands shall be hewn off.
# 218. If a physician makes a large incision with the operating knife, and kills the patient, or opens a tumor with the operating knife, and cuts out the eye, his hands shall be cut off.
# 224. If a veterinary surgeon performs a serious operation on an ass or an ox, and cures it, the owner shall pay the surgeon one-sixth of a shekel as a fee.
# 278. If anyone buys a male or female slave, and before a month has elapsed the benu-disease be developed, he shall return the slave to the seller, and receive the money which he had paid.
November 11, 2018
The strong who harm the weak shall be put to death.
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December 26, 2021O Código de Hammurabi foi escrito há quase 4000 anos, na Babilónia, entre 1792–1750 a.C., escrito em acádio. Nele podemos ler algumas leis de conduta como:
"Se um filho bater no seu pai, eles cortam-lhe a mão."
"Se um homem destruir o olho de outro homem, eles destruirão o seu olho."
"Se ele quebrar o osso de outro homem, eles quebrarão o seu osso."
"Se um homem tiver cometido incesto com a sua filha, esse homem será expulso da cidade."
"Se um homem tiver roubado uma criança, este será condenado à morte."
"Se um homem acusar outro homem e o acusar de homicídio, mas não puder apresentar provas contra ele, o seu acusador será morto."
É um documento interessante pelo modo como caracteriza o alvor da nossa civilização através da criação de regras de organização e sustentação da vida em grupo. Podemos encontrar pelo meio algumas tendências na criação de equidade, ainda que se diferencie a sociedade em hierarquias, e uns sejam tratados diferentemente dos outros em função do estrato a que pertencem.
O escrito foi feito sobre uma grande pedra de basalto que se encontra hoje em exposição no Louvre. Mais sobre o artefacto: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of...
"Se um filho bater no seu pai, eles cortam-lhe a mão."
"Se um homem destruir o olho de outro homem, eles destruirão o seu olho."
"Se ele quebrar o osso de outro homem, eles quebrarão o seu osso."
"Se um homem tiver cometido incesto com a sua filha, esse homem será expulso da cidade."
"Se um homem tiver roubado uma criança, este será condenado à morte."
"Se um homem acusar outro homem e o acusar de homicídio, mas não puder apresentar provas contra ele, o seu acusador será morto."
É um documento interessante pelo modo como caracteriza o alvor da nossa civilização através da criação de regras de organização e sustentação da vida em grupo. Podemos encontrar pelo meio algumas tendências na criação de equidade, ainda que se diferencie a sociedade em hierarquias, e uns sejam tratados diferentemente dos outros em função do estrato a que pertencem.
O escrito foi feito sobre uma grande pedra de basalto que se encontra hoje em exposição no Louvre. Mais sobre o artefacto: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of...
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April 18, 2018A disturbing look into ancient Mesopotamia, through the laws passed by King Hammurabi almost 4000 years ago. I appreciate Judge Judy all the more after reading this. What do we learn from reading these 282 laws? We learn that humanity has changed! I daresay for the better. A lot of the laws are settling property and contract disputes. So the code prescribes price and wage fixing--Adam Smith is still millennia in the future.
You get the classic eye for an eye that appears later in the Jewish holy texts, and a shattered limb for a shattered limb. But laws aren't applied equally among classes. Because, according to code 198: "If [a man] causes a poor man to lose his eye or shatter his limb, the man shall pay him one mira of silver."
It wasn't a good time for disobedient children. As code 192 tells us: "If a son of a palace warder or a palace woman, to the father that brought him up and to the mother that brought him up, has said "thou art not my father, thou art not my mother." Thou shalt cut out his tongue." And if the same son hates his parents and tries to run away, code 193 explains: you cut out his eye.
We learn that men and women are treated entirely different. And conditions are explained when it's suitable for a wife to leave her husband. "If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father's house." (Code 142.) For the most part, women are treated like chattel, with non-slaves being treated somewhat better than slaves. We learn that if a wet nurse bears a child from the wrong man, "cutt off her breasts."
You pay doctors for successful surgeries, like draining an abscess. But cut their hands off it they mess up. Any volunteers for the medical profession?
Debates about whether history can improve are typically heated. I think King Hammurabi's words break the lens of cultural relativism. Today, we have unique problems that need addressing. But I think we've come a long way since the Bronze Age
You get the classic eye for an eye that appears later in the Jewish holy texts, and a shattered limb for a shattered limb. But laws aren't applied equally among classes. Because, according to code 198: "If [a man] causes a poor man to lose his eye or shatter his limb, the man shall pay him one mira of silver."
It wasn't a good time for disobedient children. As code 192 tells us: "If a son of a palace warder or a palace woman, to the father that brought him up and to the mother that brought him up, has said "thou art not my father, thou art not my mother." Thou shalt cut out his tongue." And if the same son hates his parents and tries to run away, code 193 explains: you cut out his eye.
We learn that men and women are treated entirely different. And conditions are explained when it's suitable for a wife to leave her husband. "If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father's house." (Code 142.) For the most part, women are treated like chattel, with non-slaves being treated somewhat better than slaves. We learn that if a wet nurse bears a child from the wrong man, "cutt off her breasts."
You pay doctors for successful surgeries, like draining an abscess. But cut their hands off it they mess up. Any volunteers for the medical profession?
Debates about whether history can improve are typically heated. I think King Hammurabi's words break the lens of cultural relativism. Today, we have unique problems that need addressing. But I think we've come a long way since the Bronze Age
August 11, 2016
Created out of divine authority, world's first code of laws is quite an amusing read.
It surprised me with some of its humane laws:
If a man has incurred a debt and a storm has flooded his field or carried away the crop, or the corn has not grown because of drought, in that year he shall not pay his creditor. Further, he shall post-date his bond and shall not pay interest for that year.
I mean okay there is capital sentence even for such minor crimes as burgalaries and theft but that is to be expected from any laws written 3700 years ago (to put the figure in context - that is two centuries before Vedas and a thousand years before Homer) - and not only there were laws but there was administration to impose it.
The state actually took responsibity of doing justice, taking loss on itself where it couldn't capture criminal (which kind of makes you understand its severity when they were caught):
If the highwayman has not been
caught, the man that has been robbed shall state on oath what he has lost and the city or district governor in whose territory or district the robbery took place shall restore to him what he has lost.
I also found it interesting to find notion of average rent which probably was gained from experience of execution of older rent laws:
If a man has hired a field to cultivate and has caused no corn to grow on the field, he shall be held responsible for not doing the work on the field and shall pay an average rent.
It surprised me with some of its humane laws:
If a man has incurred a debt and a storm has flooded his field or carried away the crop, or the corn has not grown because of drought, in that year he shall not pay his creditor. Further, he shall post-date his bond and shall not pay interest for that year.
I mean okay there is capital sentence even for such minor crimes as burgalaries and theft but that is to be expected from any laws written 3700 years ago (to put the figure in context - that is two centuries before Vedas and a thousand years before Homer) - and not only there were laws but there was administration to impose it.
The state actually took responsibity of doing justice, taking loss on itself where it couldn't capture criminal (which kind of makes you understand its severity when they were caught):
If the highwayman has not been
caught, the man that has been robbed shall state on oath what he has lost and the city or district governor in whose territory or district the robbery took place shall restore to him what he has lost.
I also found it interesting to find notion of average rent which probably was gained from experience of execution of older rent laws:
If a man has hired a field to cultivate and has caused no corn to grow on the field, he shall be held responsible for not doing the work on the field and shall pay an average rent.
June 27, 2025
There is a lot of blood being spilled according to these laws, especially for the first fifty and last twenty or so, but not quite as much as what some reviewers seemed to think. The laws are surprisingly comprehensive for their day, giving specifics for different types of people, different animals, and various types of scenarios (especially in the case of marriages and children. Sometimes their wording seems cynical, while at others they are almost innocent and far too trusting. These laws definitely could have led to rampant corruption, yet I doubt we have undeniable proof to back that up either. Most of the laws seem bent on making sure that people can read what the society thought was moral and what wasn't. I have never been too keen on laws trying to dictate our morality though. It is because of those laws that I believe corruption was rampant in this society. The more a society tries to force morality, the more everyone pushes back and finds loopholes around those laws. Yet, we do need laws that enforces a basic level of civility so that anarchy does not sprout up even quicker. It is an interesting catch 22.
Anyway, I do suggest reading these as an interesting lesson in history, yet I'll not be calling for the return of this law system.
Anyway, I do suggest reading these as an interesting lesson in history, yet I'll not be calling for the return of this law system.
February 7, 2022
Most certainly don't reccomend
November 5, 2019
Pretty fair. I especially liked the words "shall be put to death"...Imagine we if we had it. Stole from taxpayers, shall be put to death. Tortured or raped an animal or a child, shall be put to death. Reneged on a word or stole from a deal, have all your fortune confiscated and yourself sold to slavery.
December 10, 2018
بسبب إستخدامه في كتير من فصول كتاب نشأة النظام الأبوي، و غرائبية بعض القوانين خلاني عايز أقرأ القوانين كلها في عصر حامورابي، هي مثيرة جدا للتأمل في سياق عصرها و فكرة تطور الشرائع.
فكرة إن البشرية في تطورها أقرت إن تغليظ العقوبة مش ديما الحل، و إنهم كانوا بدئين إن كل جريمة عقابها القتل، و بعدين خففوا العقوبات دي حاجة يتوقف قدامها كتير.
فكرة إن البشرية في تطورها أقرت إن تغليظ العقوبة مش ديما الحل، و إنهم كانوا بدئين إن كل جريمة عقابها القتل، و بعدين خففوا العقوبات دي حاجة يتوقف قدامها كتير.
September 5, 2018
I can't give it another rating.
Well, yeah... I can only give it five stars given that it's legal text and not a work of fiction nor a science book.
It's interesting as a document and relic. Cool to know that there are the basis of profesional mala praxis and dolo.
Well, yeah... I can only give it five stars given that it's legal text and not a work of fiction nor a science book.
It's interesting as a document and relic. Cool to know that there are the basis of profesional mala praxis and dolo.
September 10, 2010
I really hated this book!! In almost EVERY code the penalty is DEATH!! not cool!
July 15, 2020
The laws focus, as one might guess, on violence, property, sex.
December 29, 2020
This was awesome.
An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth is the most famous law, but, until I read this I didn't know it had an asterisk (depending on the social position of the person who inflicted the crime).
Also, there is a lot of interesting laws. For example, if a builder builds a house and that housing collapses and kills the owner, the builder will be killed, but if that house kills the owner's son, the builder's sons will be killed. Crazy ass law.
Still, there is a lot of laws that are modern even for our standards in some parts of the word (for example law about rape).
Don't make mistakes, this isn't some democratic code of law, and every other law has death as punishment, but amazing progress for human civilization was written almost 4000 years ago.
Recommended, especially because it is short with 282 laws.
PS Don't mess with Hammurabi.
An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth is the most famous law, but, until I read this I didn't know it had an asterisk (depending on the social position of the person who inflicted the crime).
Also, there is a lot of interesting laws. For example, if a builder builds a house and that housing collapses and kills the owner, the builder will be killed, but if that house kills the owner's son, the builder's sons will be killed. Crazy ass law.
Still, there is a lot of laws that are modern even for our standards in some parts of the word (for example law about rape).
Don't make mistakes, this isn't some democratic code of law, and every other law has death as punishment, but amazing progress for human civilization was written almost 4000 years ago.
Recommended, especially because it is short with 282 laws.
PS Don't mess with Hammurabi.
Read
January 30, 2018It is not my place to discuss the justice or the harshness of these laws (some of which were pretty harsh, I tell you), but I found this book... satisfying.
Considering its origins and its being the first known code of law in the world, it was very well-ordered and thorough; assaults, murder, theft, slander, trade, land, animals, slaves, hirement, public services, political corruption, marriage, adoption, inheritence and other family affairs... with 282 laws, the code covers all the aspects of life.
Considering its origins and its being the first known code of law in the world, it was very well-ordered and thorough; assaults, murder, theft, slander, trade, land, animals, slaves, hirement, public services, political corruption, marriage, adoption, inheritence and other family affairs... with 282 laws, the code covers all the aspects of life.
March 23, 2023
::انطباع عام::
نحن أمام أقدم نص قانوني (شريعة) مكتوبة بالكامل وبدقة واتقان في التاريخ الإنساني كله يعود تاريخها إلى 1750 ق.م. تقريبًا!
1_ قرأت نسختين واحدة بالإنجليزية والأخرى بالعربية قديمة من إعداد ودراسة الدكتور عبد الرحمن الكيالي. كانت القراءة الإنجليزية المتأنية أفضل من الترجمة العربية وذلك لوضوح النص الإنجليزي المترجم بصيغة قانونية رصينة وواضحة.
2_ لم يكن تركيزي أثناء القراءة على الحكم المقرر تجاه الحالة بقدر أن لفت نظري الدقة الشديدة في وصف الحالة القضائية وأحوالها المختلفة بطريقة شديدة الاتقان والحذق. بالطبع فاجأني التقسيم الطبقي للمجتمع حيث تكون التعويضات المحكوم بها للعبيد أقل من التي يحكم بها للرجال الأحرار؛ لكن هكذا كان شكل المجتمعات التعددية القديمة، لكن أن يكون رغم ذلك للأمة حقوقها أمام زوجها وللعبد حقوقه أمام سيده فهذا الإبهار الحقيقي.
3_ كانت المفاجأة الكبيرة أن أشهر سطر تشريعي ذي مصدر ديني "العين بالعين والسن بالسن" وجدته في المادة رقم 196 التي تنص: "إذا أعمى رجل عين رجل آخر؛ فالرجل الآخر يعمي عينه." المادة 197 تنص: "إذا كسر رجل عظمة رجل آخر؛ فالرجل الآخر يكسر عظمته." والمادة 200 تنص: "إذا خلع رجل سن رجل آخر في نفس درجته الاجتماعية؛ تُخلع سنه."
***
::في سطور::
1_ شريعة حمورابي هي نص بابلي قانوني كتب حوالي 1755-1750 ق.م. ويعد أطول نص قانوني وأفضل تنظيمًا ومحفوظ بشكل جيد في منطقة الشرق القديم. تمت كتابته باللغة البابلية القديمة الأكادية ونسب إلى حمورابي الملك السادس في الأسرة البابلية الأولى الحاكمة.
2_ في قمة الشاهد الحجري هناك حفر يمثل حمورابي مع شمش إله الشمس والعدل البابلي. وتحت الحفر 4130 سطرًا بالكتابة المسمارية: يحتوي خمسه على مقدمة وخاتمة شعريتان، بينما أربعة أخماسه يحتوي على القانونين. ينسب حمورابي في مقدمة الشاهد أنه منح هذا القانون من الآلهة لحماية الضعيف من استبداد القوي.
3_ طبيعة مواد النص هي "عبارات شرطية": لو … إذن …. وتشمل عدة مجالات في الحياة مثل القوانين الجنائية والأسرية والملكيات والمعاملات التجارية.
4_ تعامل المتخصصون بإعجاب شديد مع شريعة حمورابي باعتبارها مشرعة للعدالة وترسخ سلطة القانون. كما يشير ذلك إلى التعقد الممتاز للمجتمع البابلي القديم. هناك هناك نقاشات عديدة حول تأثيرها على الشريعة الموسوية. كما أن هناك مناحي عديدة لتحليل النص: من حيث هدفه، مبادئه، لغته، وعلاقته بما سبق عليه من شرائع وما لحق عليه وأثر فيه.
***
::من حمورابي؟::
1_ يعتبر حمورابي شخصية هامة في تاريخ القانون واعتبار وثيقته على أنها قانون كامل وحقيقي. حمورابي هو الملك السادس للأسرة الآمورية الأولى الحاكمة لبابل وقد حكم من 1792 ق.م. حتى 1750 ق.م. قام بتأمين بابل وفرض سيطرتها على منطقة الهلال الخصيب بالدبلوماسية والقوى العسكرية وكذلك الحيل. كانت لدى حمورابي سياسة خارجية عدوانية، لكنه كان مهتمًا بتوفير الرفاه لبلاده وتحقيق القانون والعدل. كلف الكثير من أعمال البناء ووصف نفسه براعي الشعب. العدالة هي الفكرة الأبرز في استهلال شريعته وخاتمتها.
2_ لم تكن شريعة حمورابي هي الأولى من نوعها في منطقة بلاد الرافدين، هناك مجموعة قوانين تم تدوينها من قبله بالسومرية والآكادية وتمت كتابتها بواسطة حكام المنطقة. التشابهات الكبيرة لشريعة حمورابي مع ما سبقه تفترض معين مشترك نهل منه الجميع لترسيخ القانون القضائي. الشرائع التي سبقت حمورابي منها: شريعة أور-نامو؛ شريعة لبت-عشتار؛ قوانين إشنونا. علاوة على آلاف الوثائق التنظيمية لتطبيق القانون قبل مملكة بابل القديمة. حازت بلاد الرافدين بأحكم مجموعة قوانين خالدة بالمقارنة مع الإغريق والرومان.
***
::النصب الحجري::
أولاً: النقش:- يظهر حمورابي واقفًا أمام شمش الجالس الذي يرتدي تاجًا بقرون إلهية له سمة شمسية ولهب يخرج من منكبيه. هناك رأي آخر أن الجالس هو حمورابي نفسه أما الواقف فهو شمش. فيظهر شمش وهو يملي لحمورابي الشريعة بينما يمسك قلم الكاتب محدقًا باهتمام ناحية شمش. أو أن الملك يعرض القوانين على شمش؛ فالملك يستلم شارات السلطة الخاتم والصولجان؛ - أو أن هذه الشارات تمثل أدوات القياس والبناء. ربما أيضًأ كان حمورابي يحاكي شمش. أيُا كان فالنصب الحجري يوضح كيف أن حمورابي قريب الصلة بالعالم الإلهي مستخدمًا التمثيل والأيقونات الدالة على ذلك.
ثانيًا: الاستهلال:- يشغل 300 سطرًا. يبدأ بعرض أسباب سلطة حمورابي الملكية. آنوم/آن إله السماء البابلي وملك الآلهة منح القيادة على البشر للإلهة مردوخ. واختار مردوخ مركزًا لقوته في العالم - بابل التي تعبده كإله حافظ. أسس مردوخ منصب الملكية في بابل. واصطفى آنوم/آن مع إله الرياح إنليل حمورابي ليكون ملكًا على بابل. على حمورابي أن يحكم ليمنع تسلط القوي على الضعيف. وأن يمجد شمش فوق رؤوس الشعب السوداء وأن ينور أرضهم. ثم يعرض حمورابي منجزاته وفضائله. "أنا حمورابي، الراعي، المختار من الإله إنليل." وهكذا في كل جملة يعدد صفاته بضمير المتكلم "أنا.." يصف نفسه كذلك باستمرار بأنه "التقي" وكذلك استعارة أنه راع لشعبه. تمت الانتهاء من كتابة النص في أواخر حكمه. حيث يصف أنه حقق طلب مردوخ في إحقاق الحق والعدالة لشعبه.
ثالثًا: الخاتمة:- يشغل 500 سطرًا. تتصل بشكل واضح بالقوانين التي تم سردها. تمجد التشريعات ويعرب حمورابي عن أمله في أن يكون أي رجل مظلوم لديه دعوى أن يطلع على القوانين ويقرأها بصوت عال ليعرف حقوقه. سيحقق ذلك المدح لحمورابي. ثم يأمل حمورابي الرفاه لكل حاكم يستجيب تشريعاته ويحترم نصبه؛ لكنه يستدعي الغضب الإلهي على كل رجل يخرق أو يمسح تشريعاته. في النهاية يبتهل حمورابي لكل إله على حدة أن يصب لعناته (وفقًا لصفة كل إله) على كل مزور غير عامل بتشريعاته. فيصب حدد إله العاصفة "يحرمه من فوائد المطر النازل من السماء ومن فيضان الينابيع." بينما إله الحكمة إيا "يحرمه من الفهم والحكمة ويقوده إلى الحيرة." وهكذا مع باقي آلهة الأنوناكي (آن، إنليل، إيا، شمش، سن، عشتار، هدد، نرجال، ننليل، نينتو، ننكرك."
***
::مختصر القوانين::
أولاً: التعديات على القانون (البنود 1-5)= الاتهام الباطل؛ الشهادة الباطلة؛ تزوير الحكم.
ثانيًا: التعديات على الملكيات (البنود 6-25)= سرقة ممتلكات أو حيازة مسروقات؛ اختطاف؛ إيواء عبيد هاربين؛ اقتحام؛ قطع طريق؛ نهب منازل محترقة.
ثالثًا: الأراضي والبيوت (البنود 26-؟)= الإقطاعيات؛ واجبات المزارعين؛ ديون المزارعين؛ تعديات الري؛ التعدي على الماشية؛ قطع الأشجار؛ البستنة؛ تعديات خاصة بالمنازل.
رابعًأ: التجارة (البنود ؟-126)= القروض والتجارة؛ الخمارات؛ الاحتيال؛ رهون الديون؛ الودائع.
خامسًا: الزواج والعائلة والملكيات (البنود 127-194)= قذف المتزوجات والكاهنات؛ المتزوجات؛ الزنا؛ الزواج من رجل في غياب الزوج؛ الطلاق؛ الزواج من الإماء؛ إعالة الزوجات المريضات؛ هدايا الزوج للزوجة؛ مسؤوليات الزوجين تجاه الديون؛ قتل الزوج؛ زنا المحارم؛ الزواج غير الموثق؛ توريث هدايا الزواج بعد وفاة الزوجة؛ هدايا الأبناء؛ التوريث بين الأبناء؛ حرم توريث الأبناء؛ مساواة أبناء الإماء مع أبناء الزوجة في التوريث؛ ممتلكات الأرملة؛ الزواج من العبيد؛ الزواج من الأرامل؛ شؤون الكاهنات؛ تبني الرضع والعناية بهم.
سادسًا: الجرائم (البنود 195-214)= تجاه الآباء؛ تجاه الرجل؛ تجاه المرأة الحامل مما يسبب إجهاض.
سابعًا: أصحاب المهن (البنود 215-240)= الجراحون؛ البيطريون؛ الواسمون؛ البناءون؛ صانعو السفن والمراكب.
ثامنًا: الزراعة (البنود 241-273)= الثيران؛ سرقة المستأجرين للعلف؛ استئجار عمال زراعيين؛ سرقة أدوات زراعية؛ استئجار رعاة؛ مهام الرعاة؛ استئجار حيوانات وعربات؛ استئجار عمال موسميين.
تاسعًا: الأجور (البنود 274-277)= أجور الحرفيين؛ تأجير المراكب.
عاشرًا: العبيد (البنود 278-282)= ضمانات بيع العبيد؛ شراء العبيد من خارج البلاد؛ نكران العبد للعبودية.
***
::التصنيف::
يمكن تصنيف شريعة حمورابي إلى ثلاثة تصنيفات أساسية: أنها قوانين سواء كانت دستور قانوني أو مجموعة من المواد القانونية؛ أنها محضر قانوني يحتوي على تسجيلات لوقائع ماضية والأحكام الصادرة بشأنها؛ أنها عمل فلسفي تشريعي مجرد. على الأغلب هي عمل تشريعي فلسفي.
***
::اللغة::
سيصعق أي قارئ من العنف الشديد للعديد من العقوبات. ولكن هذا يدل على أن البابليين كانوا يؤمنون بالعقاب الجسدي ولم يقدّروا كثيرًا قيمة الحياة البشرية.
***
::العلاقة بالشريعة الموسوية::
كانت علاقة قوانين حمورابي بالشريعة الموسوية وتحديدًا وصايا العهد في سفر الخروج، موضوعًا للنقاش منذ اكتشاف نصب حمورابي. قدم ديلتش جدليته في قضية التأثير القوي بينهما عام 1902، حول تأثير ثقافات بلاد ما بين النهرين القديمة على إسرائيل القديمة. إلا أنه قوبل بمقاومة شديدة. كان هناك اتصال ثقافي بين بلاد ما بين النهرين والشام، وعُثر على الألواح المسمارية من العصر البرونزي الأوسط. هناك أيضًا أوجه تشابه بين قانون حمورابي ووصايا العهد: في شكلها الشرطي، في مبادئ مثل ("العين بالعين") وفي محتوى الأحكام. بعض أوجه التشابه ملفتة للنظر، كما هو الحال في الأحكام المتعلقة نطح ثور لرجل (حمورابي 250-252 ، سفر الخروج 21: 28-32). لقد افترض بعض الكتاب تأثيرًا مباشرًا أن وصايا العهد "تعتمد بشكل مباشر، في المقام الأول، وطوال الوقت على القوانين الحمورابية"، أو هي "إعادة كتابة إبداعية لمصادر مستقاة من بلاد ما بين النهرين ... تجريد أكاديمي بدلاً من هضم للقوانين ". يفترض البعض الآخر تأثيرًا غير مباشر بينهما، مثل الآرامية أو الوسطاء الفينيقيين. ومع ذلك، فإن الإجماع هو أن أوجه التشابه هي نتيجة وراثة التقاليد المشتركة في المنطقة بطبيعة الحال. في عام 1916، استشهد جورج بارتون بـ "تشابه السوابق مع النظرة الفكرية العامة". في الآونة الأخيرة، صرح ديفيد وينتون توماس: "لا يوجد سبب لافتراض أي استعارة العبرية المباشرة من البابلية. بينما تختلف مجموعتا القوانين قليلاً في الحروف، يختلفان كثيرًا في الروح."
***
نحن أمام أقدم نص قانوني (شريعة) مكتوبة بالكامل وبدقة واتقان في التاريخ الإنساني كله يعود تاريخها إلى 1750 ق.م. تقريبًا!
1_ قرأت نسختين واحدة بالإنجليزية والأخرى بالعربية قديمة من إعداد ودراسة الدكتور عبد الرحمن الكيالي. كانت القراءة الإنجليزية المتأنية أفضل من الترجمة العربية وذلك لوضوح النص الإنجليزي المترجم بصيغة قانونية رصينة وواضحة.
2_ لم يكن تركيزي أثناء القراءة على الحكم المقرر تجاه الحالة بقدر أن لفت نظري الدقة الشديدة في وصف الحالة القضائية وأحوالها المختلفة بطريقة شديدة الاتقان والحذق. بالطبع فاجأني التقسيم الطبقي للمجتمع حيث تكون التعويضات المحكوم بها للعبيد أقل من التي يحكم بها للرجال الأحرار؛ لكن هكذا كان شكل المجتمعات التعددية القديمة، لكن أن يكون رغم ذلك للأمة حقوقها أمام زوجها وللعبد حقوقه أمام سيده فهذا الإبهار الحقيقي.
3_ كانت المفاجأة الكبيرة أن أشهر سطر تشريعي ذي مصدر ديني "العين بالعين والسن بالسن" وجدته في المادة رقم 196 التي تنص: "إذا أعمى رجل عين رجل آخر؛ فالرجل الآخر يعمي عينه." المادة 197 تنص: "إذا كسر رجل عظمة رجل آخر؛ فالرجل الآخر يكسر عظمته." والمادة 200 تنص: "إذا خلع رجل سن رجل آخر في نفس درجته الاجتماعية؛ تُخلع سنه."
***
::في سطور::
1_ شريعة حمورابي هي نص بابلي قانوني كتب حوالي 1755-1750 ق.م. ويعد أطول نص قانوني وأفضل تنظيمًا ومحفوظ بشكل جيد في منطقة الشرق القديم. تمت كتابته باللغة البابلية القديمة الأكادية ونسب إلى حمورابي الملك السادس في الأسرة البابلية الأولى الحاكمة.
2_ في قمة الشاهد الحجري هناك حفر يمثل حمورابي مع شمش إله الشمس والعدل البابلي. وتحت الحفر 4130 سطرًا بالكتابة المسمارية: يحتوي خمسه على مقدمة وخاتمة شعريتان، بينما أربعة أخماسه يحتوي على القانونين. ينسب حمورابي في مقدمة الشاهد أنه منح هذا القانون من الآلهة لحماية الضعيف من استبداد القوي.
3_ طبيعة مواد النص هي "عبارات شرطية": لو … إذن …. وتشمل عدة مجالات في الحياة مثل القوانين الجنائية والأسرية والملكيات والمعاملات التجارية.
4_ تعامل المتخصصون بإعجاب شديد مع شريعة حمورابي باعتبارها مشرعة للعدالة وترسخ سلطة القانون. كما يشير ذلك إلى التعقد الممتاز للمجتمع البابلي القديم. هناك هناك نقاشات عديدة حول تأثيرها على الشريعة الموسوية. كما أن هناك مناحي عديدة لتحليل النص: من حيث هدفه، مبادئه، لغته، وعلاقته بما سبق عليه من شرائع وما لحق عليه وأثر فيه.
***
::من حمورابي؟::
1_ يعتبر حمورابي شخصية هامة في تاريخ القانون واعتبار وثيقته على أنها قانون كامل وحقيقي. حمورابي هو الملك السادس للأسرة الآمورية الأولى الحاكمة لبابل وقد حكم من 1792 ق.م. حتى 1750 ق.م. قام بتأمين بابل وفرض سيطرتها على منطقة الهلال الخصيب بالدبلوماسية والقوى العسكرية وكذلك الحيل. كانت لدى حمورابي سياسة خارجية عدوانية، لكنه كان مهتمًا بتوفير الرفاه لبلاده وتحقيق القانون والعدل. كلف الكثير من أعمال البناء ووصف نفسه براعي الشعب. العدالة هي الفكرة الأبرز في استهلال شريعته وخاتمتها.
2_ لم تكن شريعة حمورابي هي الأولى من نوعها في منطقة بلاد الرافدين، هناك مجموعة قوانين تم تدوينها من قبله بالسومرية والآكادية وتمت كتابتها بواسطة حكام المنطقة. التشابهات الكبيرة لشريعة حمورابي مع ما سبقه تفترض معين مشترك نهل منه الجميع لترسيخ القانون القضائي. الشرائع التي سبقت حمورابي منها: شريعة أور-نامو؛ شريعة لبت-عشتار؛ قوانين إشنونا. علاوة على آلاف الوثائق التنظيمية لتطبيق القانون قبل مملكة بابل القديمة. حازت بلاد الرافدين بأحكم مجموعة قوانين خالدة بالمقارنة مع الإغريق والرومان.
***
::النصب الحجري::
أولاً: النقش:- يظهر حمورابي واقفًا أمام شمش الجالس الذي يرتدي تاجًا بقرون إلهية له سمة شمسية ولهب يخرج من منكبيه. هناك رأي آخر أن الجالس هو حمورابي نفسه أما الواقف فهو شمش. فيظهر شمش وهو يملي لحمورابي الشريعة بينما يمسك قلم الكاتب محدقًا باهتمام ناحية شمش. أو أن الملك يعرض القوانين على شمش؛ فالملك يستلم شارات السلطة الخاتم والصولجان؛ - أو أن هذه الشارات تمثل أدوات القياس والبناء. ربما أيضًأ كان حمورابي يحاكي شمش. أيُا كان فالنصب الحجري يوضح كيف أن حمورابي قريب الصلة بالعالم الإلهي مستخدمًا التمثيل والأيقونات الدالة على ذلك.
ثانيًا: الاستهلال:- يشغل 300 سطرًا. يبدأ بعرض أسباب سلطة حمورابي الملكية. آنوم/آن إله السماء البابلي وملك الآلهة منح القيادة على البشر للإلهة مردوخ. واختار مردوخ مركزًا لقوته في العالم - بابل التي تعبده كإله حافظ. أسس مردوخ منصب الملكية في بابل. واصطفى آنوم/آن مع إله الرياح إنليل حمورابي ليكون ملكًا على بابل. على حمورابي أن يحكم ليمنع تسلط القوي على الضعيف. وأن يمجد شمش فوق رؤوس الشعب السوداء وأن ينور أرضهم. ثم يعرض حمورابي منجزاته وفضائله. "أنا حمورابي، الراعي، المختار من الإله إنليل." وهكذا في كل جملة يعدد صفاته بضمير المتكلم "أنا.." يصف نفسه كذلك باستمرار بأنه "التقي" وكذلك استعارة أنه راع لشعبه. تمت الانتهاء من كتابة النص في أواخر حكمه. حيث يصف أنه حقق طلب مردوخ في إحقاق الحق والعدالة لشعبه.
ثالثًا: الخاتمة:- يشغل 500 سطرًا. تتصل بشكل واضح بالقوانين التي تم سردها. تمجد التشريعات ويعرب حمورابي عن أمله في أن يكون أي رجل مظلوم لديه دعوى أن يطلع على القوانين ويقرأها بصوت عال ليعرف حقوقه. سيحقق ذلك المدح لحمورابي. ثم يأمل حمورابي الرفاه لكل حاكم يستجيب تشريعاته ويحترم نصبه؛ لكنه يستدعي الغضب الإلهي على كل رجل يخرق أو يمسح تشريعاته. في النهاية يبتهل حمورابي لكل إله على حدة أن يصب لعناته (وفقًا لصفة كل إله) على كل مزور غير عامل بتشريعاته. فيصب حدد إله العاصفة "يحرمه من فوائد المطر النازل من السماء ومن فيضان الينابيع." بينما إله الحكمة إيا "يحرمه من الفهم والحكمة ويقوده إلى الحيرة." وهكذا مع باقي آلهة الأنوناكي (آن، إنليل، إيا، شمش، سن، عشتار، هدد، نرجال، ننليل، نينتو، ننكرك."
***
::مختصر القوانين::
أولاً: التعديات على القانون (البنود 1-5)= الاتهام الباطل؛ الشهادة الباطلة؛ تزوير الحكم.
ثانيًا: التعديات على الملكيات (البنود 6-25)= سرقة ممتلكات أو حيازة مسروقات؛ اختطاف؛ إيواء عبيد هاربين؛ اقتحام؛ قطع طريق؛ نهب منازل محترقة.
ثالثًا: الأراضي والبيوت (البنود 26-؟)= الإقطاعيات؛ واجبات المزارعين؛ ديون المزارعين؛ تعديات الري؛ التعدي على الماشية؛ قطع الأشجار؛ البستنة؛ تعديات خاصة بالمنازل.
رابعًأ: التجارة (البنود ؟-126)= القروض والتجارة؛ الخمارات؛ الاحتيال؛ رهون الديون؛ الودائع.
خامسًا: الزواج والعائلة والملكيات (البنود 127-194)= قذف المتزوجات والكاهنات؛ المتزوجات؛ الزنا؛ الزواج من رجل في غياب الزوج؛ الطلاق؛ الزواج من الإماء؛ إعالة الزوجات المريضات؛ هدايا الزوج للزوجة؛ مسؤوليات الزوجين تجاه الديون؛ قتل الزوج؛ زنا المحارم؛ الزواج غير الموثق؛ توريث هدايا الزواج بعد وفاة الزوجة؛ هدايا الأبناء؛ التوريث بين الأبناء؛ حرم توريث الأبناء؛ مساواة أبناء الإماء مع أبناء الزوجة في التوريث؛ ممتلكات الأرملة؛ الزواج من العبيد؛ الزواج من الأرامل؛ شؤون الكاهنات؛ تبني الرضع والعناية بهم.
سادسًا: الجرائم (البنود 195-214)= تجاه الآباء؛ تجاه الرجل؛ تجاه المرأة الحامل مما يسبب إجهاض.
سابعًا: أصحاب المهن (البنود 215-240)= الجراحون؛ البيطريون؛ الواسمون؛ البناءون؛ صانعو السفن والمراكب.
ثامنًا: الزراعة (البنود 241-273)= الثيران؛ سرقة المستأجرين للعلف؛ استئجار عمال زراعيين؛ سرقة أدوات زراعية؛ استئجار رعاة؛ مهام الرعاة؛ استئجار حيوانات وعربات؛ استئجار عمال موسميين.
تاسعًا: الأجور (البنود 274-277)= أجور الحرفيين؛ تأجير المراكب.
عاشرًا: العبيد (البنود 278-282)= ضمانات بيع العبيد؛ شراء العبيد من خارج البلاد؛ نكران العبد للعبودية.
***
::التصنيف::
يمكن تصنيف شريعة حمورابي إلى ثلاثة تصنيفات أساسية: أنها قوانين سواء كانت دستور قانوني أو مجموعة من المواد القانونية؛ أنها محضر قانوني يحتوي على تسجيلات لوقائع ماضية والأحكام الصادرة بشأنها؛ أنها عمل فلسفي تشريعي مجرد. على الأغلب هي عمل تشريعي فلسفي.
***
::اللغة::
سيصعق أي قارئ من العنف الشديد للعديد من العقوبات. ولكن هذا يدل على أن البابليين كانوا يؤمنون بالعقاب الجسدي ولم يقدّروا كثيرًا قيمة الحياة البشرية.
***
::العلاقة بالشريعة الموسوية::
كانت علاقة قوانين حمورابي بالشريعة الموسوية وتحديدًا وصايا العهد في سفر الخروج، موضوعًا للنقاش منذ اكتشاف نصب حمورابي. قدم ديلتش جدليته في قضية التأثير القوي بينهما عام 1902، حول تأثير ثقافات بلاد ما بين النهرين القديمة على إسرائيل القديمة. إلا أنه قوبل بمقاومة شديدة. كان هناك اتصال ثقافي بين بلاد ما بين النهرين والشام، وعُثر على الألواح المسمارية من العصر البرونزي الأوسط. هناك أيضًا أوجه تشابه بين قانون حمورابي ووصايا العهد: في شكلها الشرطي، في مبادئ مثل ("العين بالعين") وفي محتوى الأحكام. بعض أوجه التشابه ملفتة للنظر، كما هو الحال في الأحكام المتعلقة نطح ثور لرجل (حمورابي 250-252 ، سفر الخروج 21: 28-32). لقد افترض بعض الكتاب تأثيرًا مباشرًا أن وصايا العهد "تعتمد بشكل مباشر، في المقام الأول، وطوال الوقت على القوانين الحمورابية"، أو هي "إعادة كتابة إبداعية لمصادر مستقاة من بلاد ما بين النهرين ... تجريد أكاديمي بدلاً من هضم للقوانين ". يفترض البعض الآخر تأثيرًا غير مباشر بينهما، مثل الآرامية أو الوسطاء الفينيقيين. ومع ذلك، فإن الإجماع هو أن أوجه التشابه هي نتيجة وراثة التقاليد المشتركة في المنطقة بطبيعة الحال. في عام 1916، استشهد جورج بارتون بـ "تشابه السوابق مع النظرة الفكرية العامة". في الآونة الأخيرة، صرح ديفيد وينتون توماس: "لا يوجد سبب لافتراض أي استعارة العبرية المباشرة من البابلية. بينما تختلف مجموعتا القوانين قليلاً في الحروف، يختلفان كثيرًا في الروح."
***
November 9, 2011
The Code of Hammurabi was a great breakthrough in the criminal justice system, setting a precedent for future refinements in the codes of various cultures. Not only was it uniform in its treatment of all the people of the Babylonian nation, but it recognized the political corruption inherent in offices of authority, and introduced a great deal of measures to prevent abuse of that power, as well as heightened penalties for the privileged classes in violation of the code.
This code is comprehensive especially for the society in which it was written, and covers nearly every situation of potential conflict of interest. Due to its noticeable preoccupation with the importance of the upkeep of land, and of the subsidization of the land and resources of politically-endowed classes (i.e. the aristocrats of the day), the Code of Hammurabi also provides a literary glimpse into the economic system and legal structure of Ancient Babylon, and the feudalistic nature thereof.
The primary weaknesses of the power of the code (which might not be weaknesses at all, when considering the polytheocratic and egotistical nature of the kingdoms of Ancient Babylon), are in the Prologue and Epilogue of the code; these portions, which are dedicated entirely to the grandiosity and wisdom of Hammurabi, his role as both prophet of the gods and savior of the peoples of Babylon, and the predicted (positive) effect of the code on Babylon and its people.
The Prologue is particularly droning, as it is basically a really long way (several pages) of saying "I am the prophet of the gods, I am awesome, I am the savior of Babylon, and the following code proves it!" I would gladly decipher that from the oldest of Olde English, rather than read the Narcissistic Prologue. The Epilogue is not much better, and can be pretty much summarized as a bunch of predictions about the future prosperity in the land that the code with bring to its people. Oh, and may the gods curse and destroy all who disagree with or refuse to abide by my code. So blessings, then cursings-- hardly original, even back then. Or, as the translators put it, "Often the phrases [in the Prologue and Epilogue of the Code] are simply stock expressions which occur in most of the royal inscriptions." Well, at least he's not reinventing the wheel...
Overall the Code of Hammurabi was a worthwhile read, and without the Prologue and Epilogue, a breakthrough in the evolution of the Law as a social institution.
This code is comprehensive especially for the society in which it was written, and covers nearly every situation of potential conflict of interest. Due to its noticeable preoccupation with the importance of the upkeep of land, and of the subsidization of the land and resources of politically-endowed classes (i.e. the aristocrats of the day), the Code of Hammurabi also provides a literary glimpse into the economic system and legal structure of Ancient Babylon, and the feudalistic nature thereof.
The primary weaknesses of the power of the code (which might not be weaknesses at all, when considering the polytheocratic and egotistical nature of the kingdoms of Ancient Babylon), are in the Prologue and Epilogue of the code; these portions, which are dedicated entirely to the grandiosity and wisdom of Hammurabi, his role as both prophet of the gods and savior of the peoples of Babylon, and the predicted (positive) effect of the code on Babylon and its people.
The Prologue is particularly droning, as it is basically a really long way (several pages) of saying "I am the prophet of the gods, I am awesome, I am the savior of Babylon, and the following code proves it!" I would gladly decipher that from the oldest of Olde English, rather than read the Narcissistic Prologue. The Epilogue is not much better, and can be pretty much summarized as a bunch of predictions about the future prosperity in the land that the code with bring to its people. Oh, and may the gods curse and destroy all who disagree with or refuse to abide by my code. So blessings, then cursings-- hardly original, even back then. Or, as the translators put it, "Often the phrases [in the Prologue and Epilogue of the Code] are simply stock expressions which occur in most of the royal inscriptions." Well, at least he's not reinventing the wheel...
Overall the Code of Hammurabi was a worthwhile read, and without the Prologue and Epilogue, a breakthrough in the evolution of the Law as a social institution.
April 16, 2022
Broken into three parts, the Code of Hammurabi is a quick read. It is interesting because it is one of the earliest writings humans have discovered.
Predating most, if not all, of the hebrew Bible, it is interesting to note the similarity of the launguage and ideals. Such as: "salvation-bearing shepherd", "the good shadow spread over my city", and "king of righteousness."
It begins with an epitaph written by Hammurabi about how he was called by name by the Gods. How he brought wealth and righteousness to Babylon. How he "conquered the four corners of the world, made great the name of Babylon", and so on.
The laws then start. They are each very short and direct. Mostly people getting their hands lopped of, drowned, stoned, or exiled. It also covers land leasing, pasture grazing, wages, and adoption. Like the Old Testiment in the Christian Bible, there is an obnoxiously long bit about if women do this or that, their doweries, and what should happen to them if their husband dies. There's also more than a few laws regarding slaves. There are 282 short one to two sentences laws counted, but some have been completely lost. The most well known of course are the "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth." That philosophy was taken to the extremes by Hammurabi in his laws. For example:
"229 If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.
230. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death."
Killing a man's son because he accidently killed someone else's son, seems a bit extreme by today's standards.
It ends with Hammurabi stating that these laws should be etched below a statue of himself so that common people could come and see the laws. Then Hammurabi goes into great detail threatening that anyone who tries to change the laws or ignores them will be severely punished by the gods.
Read the Code of Hammurabi free at https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/h...
Predating most, if not all, of the hebrew Bible, it is interesting to note the similarity of the launguage and ideals. Such as: "salvation-bearing shepherd", "the good shadow spread over my city", and "king of righteousness."
It begins with an epitaph written by Hammurabi about how he was called by name by the Gods. How he brought wealth and righteousness to Babylon. How he "conquered the four corners of the world, made great the name of Babylon", and so on.
The laws then start. They are each very short and direct. Mostly people getting their hands lopped of, drowned, stoned, or exiled. It also covers land leasing, pasture grazing, wages, and adoption. Like the Old Testiment in the Christian Bible, there is an obnoxiously long bit about if women do this or that, their doweries, and what should happen to them if their husband dies. There's also more than a few laws regarding slaves. There are 282 short one to two sentences laws counted, but some have been completely lost. The most well known of course are the "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth." That philosophy was taken to the extremes by Hammurabi in his laws. For example:
"229 If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.
230. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death."
Killing a man's son because he accidently killed someone else's son, seems a bit extreme by today's standards.
It ends with Hammurabi stating that these laws should be etched below a statue of himself so that common people could come and see the laws. Then Hammurabi goes into great detail threatening that anyone who tries to change the laws or ignores them will be severely punished by the gods.
Read the Code of Hammurabi free at https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/h...
April 20, 2019
I started this book at least four times and never got back to it. Seeing as we have been deluged lately here in North Carolina, I figured I would tear through it. This is a law book, a book of laws that are still the basis for many laws and rules amongst many cultural variances. There are rules here for how sexual situations should be treated, how a judge should respond to certain things, and many other things you have heard of. Eye for an Eye? Oh yes, mentioned and put in place here. Many other very familiar things written about and employed across the globe started here. This is a short book but one that gives us a look into how things used to be and maybe how they should have stayed? You make the choice. Very good book!
Danny
Danny
June 24, 2014
I remember learning about Hammurabi's laws in high school, but we didn't have to read the actual laws. I see now what a good decision that was. Ol' Hammy gets way too specific - this reads like a transcript of every specific case ever brought to court in Sumer. Plus, there's a long intro telling us how the gods picked Hamms as king, and an even longer epilogue full of curses on any future king who changes the laws. Might've been big news at the time, but it's pretty long-winded and narcissistic now.
July 31, 2020
A Short Book that Covers a Great Deal of Life
Okay, I 'm not big on reading law books, but this was fortunately short and sweet. I think my favorite judgment was "Throw him in the water." You would have been glad you took those swimming lessons!
Okay, I 'm not big on reading law books, but this was fortunately short and sweet. I think my favorite judgment was "Throw him in the water." You would have been glad you took those swimming lessons!
February 1, 2017
The only truly interesting things about this was its origin. It's the first known code of laws. But other than a few harsh punishments for seemingly minor things, there's not much to marvel at.
September 13, 2024
Si uno leyera únicamente el Código de Hammurabi se encontraría con un prólogo donde se alaba al magnífico rey, después una recopilación de leyes, en algunos puntos ininteligibles por haberse perdido para siempre y en otros por causa de no contar con el contexto del cual partían y que querían regular, para terminar con un epílogo de maldiciones a quienes desafiaran las leyes ahí escritas.
La edición de Tecnos, para evitar la dificultad en aprehender el sentido de lo leído, aportó una robusta introducción en el tema de las diversas legislaciones en la región de la media Luna y cerró su formidable trabajo con un aparato crítico que quintuplicó la extensión de la legislación comentada. Debo confesar que no pude leer esta última sección. Un sólo renglón del código de Hammurabi en esta versión puede terminar con dos notas al pie de página de cuatro páginas de extensión en letra diminuta. La suma erudición termina por disuadir al lector. Supongo que esta sección es útil y conveniente únicamente para amantes de la cultura sumeria o estudiosos concienzudos del Derecho.
Este libro no debe leerse como pasatiempo... Sufre de dos terribles males: es un texto vetusto y para colmo un documento jurídico. Dos notas que abonan para abrumar a cualquiera.
La edición de Tecnos, para evitar la dificultad en aprehender el sentido de lo leído, aportó una robusta introducción en el tema de las diversas legislaciones en la región de la media Luna y cerró su formidable trabajo con un aparato crítico que quintuplicó la extensión de la legislación comentada. Debo confesar que no pude leer esta última sección. Un sólo renglón del código de Hammurabi en esta versión puede terminar con dos notas al pie de página de cuatro páginas de extensión en letra diminuta. La suma erudición termina por disuadir al lector. Supongo que esta sección es útil y conveniente únicamente para amantes de la cultura sumeria o estudiosos concienzudos del Derecho.
Este libro no debe leerse como pasatiempo... Sufre de dos terribles males: es un texto vetusto y para colmo un documento jurídico. Dos notas que abonan para abrumar a cualquiera.
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May 4, 2021Ancient law text, all hiding several small stories with a bad ending. One cannot imagine why these have been written down.
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February 7, 2025Oye pero cómo va a ser eso de que si un hombre de mayor rango que el mío me agrede solo me da 1/3 de mina de plata. Vaya estafa primo
September 7, 2020
Very, VERY interesting !
October 9, 2024
Puntos más interesantes:
-1 § Si un hombre acusa a otro hombre y le imputa un asesinato pero no puede probarlo, su acusador será ejecutado.
-7 § Si un hombre compra o recibe en depósito plata u oro o un esclavo o esclava o un buey,
o una oveja, o un asno, o lo que sea, de manos de un hijo de un hombre o del esclavo de un hombre sin testigos ni contrato, ese hombre es un ladrón; será ejecutado
-8 § Si un hombre roba un buey o una oveja, o un asno, o un cerdo, o una barca, sean del dios o del Palacio, lo devolverá 30 veces; si son de un individuo común, lo devolverá 10 veces. Si el ladrón no tiene con qué devolver, será ejecutado.
-13 § Si ese hombre no tiene entonces los testigos a mano, los jueces fijarán un plazo de hasta 6 meses. Si no presenta a sus testigos en 6 meses, ese hombre es un embaucador; que cargue con toda la multa del juicio.
-15 § Si un hombre deja que un esclavo del palacio o una esclava del palacio o un esclavo de un individuo común o una esclava de un individuo común salgan por la puerta principal de la ciudad, será ejecutado [Si permite su fuga?].
-25 § Si en la casa de un hombre hay un incendio y algún hombre que había venido a apagarlo desea algún objeto y se queda con el objeto del dueño de la casa, ese hombre será quemado en ese mismo fuego.
-26 § Si un soldado de leva o un militar que recibe orden de ir a una campaña del rey, no va, o contrata a un mercenario para que vaya en su lugar, ese soldado -o ese militar- será ejecutado; el que lo denuncie se quedará con su patrimonio.
-69 § Si [un hombre alquila una casa ... y] el inquilino le da de una vez el alquiler de un año al dueño, y luego el dueño de la casa exige al inquilino que salga sin que haya expirado el plazo, el dueño de la casa, por echar de su casa al inquilino sin haber expirado el plazo, perderá el dinero que le haya dado el inquilino.
-108 § Si una tabernera no cobra cebada como precio por la cerveza y cobra en dinero según una pesa grande y rebaja el valor de cerveza en relación al valor de la cebada, que se lo prueben y la tiren al agua.
-113 § Si un hombre tiene derecho a reclamarle ya a otro hombre cebada o dinero y -sin permiso del dueño de la cebada- se le lleva cebada del granero o de la era, que le prueben a ese hombre que se ha llevado cebada del granero o de la era sin permiso del dueño, y devolverá toda la cebada que se hubiera llevado y, además, perderá su derecho sobre lo que hubiera prestado.
-116 § Si el rehén, en casa del que lo embargó, muere a golpes o por malos tratos, que el dueño del rehén se lo pruebe a su mercader; si fuera un hijo del hombre, ejecutarán a un hijo suyo; si fuera un esclavo del hombre, pagará 1/3 de mina de plata; además, perderá sus derechos sobre todo lo que hubiera prestado.
-117 § Si las deudas se apoderan de un hombre y tiene que vender a su esposa, a su hijo o a su hija, o andar ofreciéndoles para que sirvan por la deuda, que trabajen 3 años para la casa del que los compró o los tomó en servicio; el cuarto año serán libres.
-123 § Si efectúa la entrega sin testigos ni contrato y luego se lo niegan en el lugar en que lo entregó, en ese caso no podrá haber reclamación judicia
-124 § Si un hombre da a otro hombre en custodia plata, oro o lo que sea ante testigos y luego él se lo niega, que se lo prueben a ese hombre, y pagará 2 veces todo lo que niega.
-128 § Si alguien toma esposa, pero no redacta un contrato sobre ella, esa mujer no es esposa.
-133a § Si alguien está preso y en su casa hay aún de comer, que su esposa, [mientras] su [esposo está preso], guarde su cuerpo [y no] entre [en casa de otro].
-134 § Si alguien es hecho preso y en su casa no hay de comer, que su esposa entre en casa de otro; esta mujer no tiene culpa.
-135 § Si alguien está preso y en su casa no hay de corner, y su esposa, antes de que él vuelva, entra en casa de otro y alumbra hijos, y luego su marido logra volver y regresa a su ciudad, que esa mujer vuelva con su primer marido; los hijos seguirán a su padre.
-157 § Si un hombre, después de muerto su padre, yace con su madre, que los quemen a ambos.
-168 § Si un hombre se propone desheredar a su hijo y les dice a los jueces: «Desheredo a mi hijo», que los jueces decidan sobre su caso, y si el hijo no ha cargado con una falta lo suficientemente grave como para arrancarlo de su posición de heredero299, el padre no lo arrancará de su condición de heredero.
-169 § Si ha cargado con una falta respecto a su padre lo bastante grave para arrancarlo de su posición de heredero, que, la primera vez, no se lo echen en cara. Si se carga con una falta grave por segunda vez, su padre Io privará de su condición de heredero.
-171a § Ahora bien, si el padre, en vida, no les declara a los hijos que le haya alumbrado la esclava: «Sois hijos mios», que, cuando al padre le haya llegado su última hora, los hijos de la esclava no hagan partes iguales de los bienes de la casa del padre con los hijos de la esposa principal; se efectuará la puesta en libertad de la esclava y de sus hijos: los hijos de la esposa principal no les exigirán a los hijos de la esclava su vuelta a la esclavitud.
-176a § Y si un esclavo del palacio o un esclavo de individuo común toma (por esposa) a una hija de señor y ella, al tomarla él, entra con la dote de casa de su padre en la casa del esclavo del palacio o del esclavo del individuo, y luego, tras co- habitar, fundar un hogar y adquirido bienes, le llega su última hora al esclavo del palacio o al esclavo del individuo, que la hija de señor conserve su dote. Ahora bien, que hagan 2 partes de todo lo que su marido y ella habían ido adquiriendo desde que cohabitaron, y el dueño del esclavo se quedará con una mitad y la hija de señor se quedará con la otra mitad, para sus hijos.
-177 § Si una viuda, con hijos pequeños, quiere entrar (como esposa) en casa de otro, que no entre sin permiso de los jueces. Cuando entre, que los jueces valoren el patrimonio dejado por su marido y que el patrimonio del primer marido lo den en custodia al marido nuevo y a la mujer, y que se escriba una tablilla; tendrán que cuidar del patrimonio, y criar a los pequeños, y no venderán objeto alguno: el comprador que compre algo perteneciente a los hijos de la viuda perderá su dinero; la propiedad volverá a su dueña.
-188 § Si un maestro artesano se lleva a un hijo [ajeno] para criarlo y le enseña su oficio, no podrá ser reclamado.
-191 § Si un hombre con un pequeño al que se había llevado para adoptarlo y criarlo funda su propia familia y luego tiene hijos y se propone echar al niño, que ese hijo no se vaya de vacío; el padre que lo crió le dará, de sus bienes muebles, la tercera parte de herencia suya y que se marche; no le entregará nada de campo, ni de huerta, ni de casa.
-195 § Si un hijo golpea a su padre, que le corten la mano.
-210 § Si esa mujer muere, que maten a su hija.
-218 § Si un médico hace incisión profunda en un hombre con bisturí de bronce y le provoca la muerte, o si le abre la sien a un hombre con bisturí de bronce y deja tuerto al hombre, que le corten la mano.
-226 § Si un barbero, sin consentimiento del dueño de un esclavo, afeita el copete a un esclavo que no sea suyo, que corten la mano del barbero.
-229 § Si un albañil hace una casa a un hombre y no consolida bien su obra y la casa que acaba de hacer se derrumba y mata al dueño de la casa, ese albañil será ejecutado.
-230 § Si muere un hijo del dueño de la casa, que ejecuten a un hijo de ese albañil.
-1 § Si un hombre acusa a otro hombre y le imputa un asesinato pero no puede probarlo, su acusador será ejecutado.
-7 § Si un hombre compra o recibe en depósito plata u oro o un esclavo o esclava o un buey,
o una oveja, o un asno, o lo que sea, de manos de un hijo de un hombre o del esclavo de un hombre sin testigos ni contrato, ese hombre es un ladrón; será ejecutado
-8 § Si un hombre roba un buey o una oveja, o un asno, o un cerdo, o una barca, sean del dios o del Palacio, lo devolverá 30 veces; si son de un individuo común, lo devolverá 10 veces. Si el ladrón no tiene con qué devolver, será ejecutado.
-13 § Si ese hombre no tiene entonces los testigos a mano, los jueces fijarán un plazo de hasta 6 meses. Si no presenta a sus testigos en 6 meses, ese hombre es un embaucador; que cargue con toda la multa del juicio.
-15 § Si un hombre deja que un esclavo del palacio o una esclava del palacio o un esclavo de un individuo común o una esclava de un individuo común salgan por la puerta principal de la ciudad, será ejecutado [Si permite su fuga?].
-25 § Si en la casa de un hombre hay un incendio y algún hombre que había venido a apagarlo desea algún objeto y se queda con el objeto del dueño de la casa, ese hombre será quemado en ese mismo fuego.
-26 § Si un soldado de leva o un militar que recibe orden de ir a una campaña del rey, no va, o contrata a un mercenario para que vaya en su lugar, ese soldado -o ese militar- será ejecutado; el que lo denuncie se quedará con su patrimonio.
-69 § Si [un hombre alquila una casa ... y] el inquilino le da de una vez el alquiler de un año al dueño, y luego el dueño de la casa exige al inquilino que salga sin que haya expirado el plazo, el dueño de la casa, por echar de su casa al inquilino sin haber expirado el plazo, perderá el dinero que le haya dado el inquilino.
-108 § Si una tabernera no cobra cebada como precio por la cerveza y cobra en dinero según una pesa grande y rebaja el valor de cerveza en relación al valor de la cebada, que se lo prueben y la tiren al agua.
-113 § Si un hombre tiene derecho a reclamarle ya a otro hombre cebada o dinero y -sin permiso del dueño de la cebada- se le lleva cebada del granero o de la era, que le prueben a ese hombre que se ha llevado cebada del granero o de la era sin permiso del dueño, y devolverá toda la cebada que se hubiera llevado y, además, perderá su derecho sobre lo que hubiera prestado.
-116 § Si el rehén, en casa del que lo embargó, muere a golpes o por malos tratos, que el dueño del rehén se lo pruebe a su mercader; si fuera un hijo del hombre, ejecutarán a un hijo suyo; si fuera un esclavo del hombre, pagará 1/3 de mina de plata; además, perderá sus derechos sobre todo lo que hubiera prestado.
-117 § Si las deudas se apoderan de un hombre y tiene que vender a su esposa, a su hijo o a su hija, o andar ofreciéndoles para que sirvan por la deuda, que trabajen 3 años para la casa del que los compró o los tomó en servicio; el cuarto año serán libres.
-123 § Si efectúa la entrega sin testigos ni contrato y luego se lo niegan en el lugar en que lo entregó, en ese caso no podrá haber reclamación judicia
-124 § Si un hombre da a otro hombre en custodia plata, oro o lo que sea ante testigos y luego él se lo niega, que se lo prueben a ese hombre, y pagará 2 veces todo lo que niega.
-128 § Si alguien toma esposa, pero no redacta un contrato sobre ella, esa mujer no es esposa.
-133a § Si alguien está preso y en su casa hay aún de comer, que su esposa, [mientras] su [esposo está preso], guarde su cuerpo [y no] entre [en casa de otro].
-134 § Si alguien es hecho preso y en su casa no hay de comer, que su esposa entre en casa de otro; esta mujer no tiene culpa.
-135 § Si alguien está preso y en su casa no hay de corner, y su esposa, antes de que él vuelva, entra en casa de otro y alumbra hijos, y luego su marido logra volver y regresa a su ciudad, que esa mujer vuelva con su primer marido; los hijos seguirán a su padre.
-157 § Si un hombre, después de muerto su padre, yace con su madre, que los quemen a ambos.
-168 § Si un hombre se propone desheredar a su hijo y les dice a los jueces: «Desheredo a mi hijo», que los jueces decidan sobre su caso, y si el hijo no ha cargado con una falta lo suficientemente grave como para arrancarlo de su posición de heredero299, el padre no lo arrancará de su condición de heredero.
-169 § Si ha cargado con una falta respecto a su padre lo bastante grave para arrancarlo de su posición de heredero, que, la primera vez, no se lo echen en cara. Si se carga con una falta grave por segunda vez, su padre Io privará de su condición de heredero.
-171a § Ahora bien, si el padre, en vida, no les declara a los hijos que le haya alumbrado la esclava: «Sois hijos mios», que, cuando al padre le haya llegado su última hora, los hijos de la esclava no hagan partes iguales de los bienes de la casa del padre con los hijos de la esposa principal; se efectuará la puesta en libertad de la esclava y de sus hijos: los hijos de la esposa principal no les exigirán a los hijos de la esclava su vuelta a la esclavitud.
-176a § Y si un esclavo del palacio o un esclavo de individuo común toma (por esposa) a una hija de señor y ella, al tomarla él, entra con la dote de casa de su padre en la casa del esclavo del palacio o del esclavo del individuo, y luego, tras co- habitar, fundar un hogar y adquirido bienes, le llega su última hora al esclavo del palacio o al esclavo del individuo, que la hija de señor conserve su dote. Ahora bien, que hagan 2 partes de todo lo que su marido y ella habían ido adquiriendo desde que cohabitaron, y el dueño del esclavo se quedará con una mitad y la hija de señor se quedará con la otra mitad, para sus hijos.
-177 § Si una viuda, con hijos pequeños, quiere entrar (como esposa) en casa de otro, que no entre sin permiso de los jueces. Cuando entre, que los jueces valoren el patrimonio dejado por su marido y que el patrimonio del primer marido lo den en custodia al marido nuevo y a la mujer, y que se escriba una tablilla; tendrán que cuidar del patrimonio, y criar a los pequeños, y no venderán objeto alguno: el comprador que compre algo perteneciente a los hijos de la viuda perderá su dinero; la propiedad volverá a su dueña.
-188 § Si un maestro artesano se lleva a un hijo [ajeno] para criarlo y le enseña su oficio, no podrá ser reclamado.
-191 § Si un hombre con un pequeño al que se había llevado para adoptarlo y criarlo funda su propia familia y luego tiene hijos y se propone echar al niño, que ese hijo no se vaya de vacío; el padre que lo crió le dará, de sus bienes muebles, la tercera parte de herencia suya y que se marche; no le entregará nada de campo, ni de huerta, ni de casa.
-195 § Si un hijo golpea a su padre, que le corten la mano.
-210 § Si esa mujer muere, que maten a su hija.
-218 § Si un médico hace incisión profunda en un hombre con bisturí de bronce y le provoca la muerte, o si le abre la sien a un hombre con bisturí de bronce y deja tuerto al hombre, que le corten la mano.
-226 § Si un barbero, sin consentimiento del dueño de un esclavo, afeita el copete a un esclavo que no sea suyo, que corten la mano del barbero.
-229 § Si un albañil hace una casa a un hombre y no consolida bien su obra y la casa que acaba de hacer se derrumba y mata al dueño de la casa, ese albañil será ejecutado.
-230 § Si muere un hijo del dueño de la casa, que ejecuten a un hijo de ese albañil.
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