What do you think?
Rate this book
A Sovereign People: The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism
Today the United States is the dominant power in world affairs, and that status seems assured. Yet in the decade following the ratification of the Constitution, the republic’s existence was contingent and fragile, challenged by domestic rebellions, foreign interference, and the always-present danger of collapse into mob rule.
Carol Berkin reveals that the nation survived almost entirely due to the actions of the Federalist leadership—George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Adams. Reacting to successive crises, they extended the power of the federal government and fended off foreign attempts to subvert American sovereignty. As Berkin argues, the result was a spike in nationalism, as ordinary citizens began to identify with their nation first, their home states second.
While the Revolution freed the states and the Constitution linked them as never before, this landmark work shows that it was the Federalists who transformed the states into an enduring nation.
Carol Berkin reveals that the nation survived almost entirely due to the actions of the Federalist leadership—George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Adams. Reacting to successive crises, they extended the power of the federal government and fended off foreign attempts to subvert American sovereignty. As Berkin argues, the result was a spike in nationalism, as ordinary citizens began to identify with their nation first, their home states second.
While the Revolution freed the states and the Constitution linked them as never before, this landmark work shows that it was the Federalists who transformed the states into an enduring nation.
336 pages, Hardcover
First published May 2, 2017
9 people are currently reading
508 people want to read
Ratings & Reviews
Friends & Following
Create a free account to discover what your friends think of this book!
Community Reviews
Displaying 1 - 18 of 18 reviews
October 29, 2025
American Nationalism In The Age Of Federalism
With many books addressing the early history of the United States under the Constitution, it is difficult to present this story in a fresh, insightful manner. Carol Berkin succeeds admirably in capturing the critical role this early history played in the development of American constitutionalism and the significance of the achievements of Presidents Washington and Adams in her book, "A Sovereign People, The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism" (2017). Berkin, the author is many books on American history, is the Presidential Professor of History Emerita at Baruch College and the Graduate Center, CUNY. I have read one of her earlier books, "Civil War Wives: The Lives and Times of Angelina Grimke Weld, Varina Howell Davis, and Julia Dent Grant."
Berkin explores the achievement of the American Federalists, particularly Washington, Adams, and Hamilton. The Federalists were those who supported the ratification of the American Constitution. They argued that the Constitution was necessary to create a strong, effective central government rather than a loose confederation of states. The Constitution was ratified, but it was a close thing. With the election of George Washington as the first president, many Americans still remained skeptical of the constitution and the Federal government and feared it would deprive them of their liberties.
Berkin explores the development of American constitutionalism and of Americans' slow placement of loyalty and patriotism in the national government through discussion of four crises in the administrations of the first two presidents. The first two of these crises, the Whiskey Rebellion and the Genet Affair, occurred during the Washington Administration. The third and fourth crises, the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts, occurred under Washington's successor, President Adams. Some historical accounts tend to see the handling of these crises as a bridge to Democratic government beginning in 1800 with the presidency of Jefferson. Berkin finds much to be admired in the Federalists and in their handling of each of these four crises. She writes:
"Modern Americans often assume that nationalism was an obvious and even automatic response to the transition from colonies to an independent country after the Revolutionary War. But this assumption misses the reality that the core of nationalism -- loyalty to a country and its government and its shared identity as its citizens -- was a result of the hard work of governance. The governments of Washington and Adams did not find perfect solutions to the crises facing their country, but over the course of their administrations Americans came to acknowledge that the federal government was the best-equipped institution to deal with critical domestic and foreign problems."
Berkin offers good background and detailed discussion of each of the four crises she describes. She shows how each crisis constituted a threat to the fledgling American nation rather than an exaggerated local incident that the government tried to exploit for its own purposes. The resolution of each crises worked to strengthen the Federal government and Americans sense of patriotism and loyalty to the government, even when some Americans might disagree with individual decisions.
Thus, Berkin argues that the Whiskey Rebellion, over the government's power to tax, was resolved largely through the great personal admiration Americans had for George Washington. The Genet Affair, involving a French minister's attempt to end-run the national government to secure support for revolutionary France, led to a realization of the Executive Branch's role in the conduct of foreign affairs beyond the personal prestige of the individual holding the presidency. The XYZ affair involving an attempt by the French minister to extort bribes and loans in exchange for peace with France, led to Americans of all political stripes uniting in the face of this foreign effort to separate Americans from each other and from their government. The Alien and Sedition Acts showed both that commitment to the national government was stronger than commitment to party and that criticism of government enactments was based on the Constitution itself, rather than on a rejection of constitutionalism and of nationalism.
Berkin concludes:
"The arc of nationalism can thus be traced through the crises of the 179os. The trust placed in Washington as an individual, so critical in the approval of his handling of the Whiskey Rebellion, was transformed during the Genet affair into a respect for the office he held. The XYZ affair helped Americans recognize their shared identity, a national identity that limited the power of provincialism to shape their views and their political choices. And the challenge to the Alien and Sedition acts demonstrated that there was no longer an anti-Constitution movement but a loyalty to the Constitution that could withstand a difference in interpretation of the powers it invested in the federal government. This loyalty was fundamental to the acceptance of the notion of a loyal opposition in politics. And the idea of a loyal opposition helped sustain the Union until the struggle over the survival of slavery created a breach too broad and too deep to be mended without bloodshed."
Berkin writes clearly and well, perhaps as a result of long years experience in college teaching. She states the goals of her book clearly in the introduction, presents her materials clearly and coherently in short, digestible sections in each chapter, repeats and summarizes her materials as she proceeds, and reaches a compelling understandable conclusion in the final section of her book.
Berkin's "A Sovereign People" tells an important story about the growth of American nationalism and about the importance of loyalty. It reminded me in today's difficult time about the importance of American nationalism and about how Americans of differing political views and persuasions can disagree with one another while retaining a sense of mutual respect together with a strong commitment to American identity.
Robin Friedman
With many books addressing the early history of the United States under the Constitution, it is difficult to present this story in a fresh, insightful manner. Carol Berkin succeeds admirably in capturing the critical role this early history played in the development of American constitutionalism and the significance of the achievements of Presidents Washington and Adams in her book, "A Sovereign People, The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism" (2017). Berkin, the author is many books on American history, is the Presidential Professor of History Emerita at Baruch College and the Graduate Center, CUNY. I have read one of her earlier books, "Civil War Wives: The Lives and Times of Angelina Grimke Weld, Varina Howell Davis, and Julia Dent Grant."
Berkin explores the achievement of the American Federalists, particularly Washington, Adams, and Hamilton. The Federalists were those who supported the ratification of the American Constitution. They argued that the Constitution was necessary to create a strong, effective central government rather than a loose confederation of states. The Constitution was ratified, but it was a close thing. With the election of George Washington as the first president, many Americans still remained skeptical of the constitution and the Federal government and feared it would deprive them of their liberties.
Berkin explores the development of American constitutionalism and of Americans' slow placement of loyalty and patriotism in the national government through discussion of four crises in the administrations of the first two presidents. The first two of these crises, the Whiskey Rebellion and the Genet Affair, occurred during the Washington Administration. The third and fourth crises, the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts, occurred under Washington's successor, President Adams. Some historical accounts tend to see the handling of these crises as a bridge to Democratic government beginning in 1800 with the presidency of Jefferson. Berkin finds much to be admired in the Federalists and in their handling of each of these four crises. She writes:
"Modern Americans often assume that nationalism was an obvious and even automatic response to the transition from colonies to an independent country after the Revolutionary War. But this assumption misses the reality that the core of nationalism -- loyalty to a country and its government and its shared identity as its citizens -- was a result of the hard work of governance. The governments of Washington and Adams did not find perfect solutions to the crises facing their country, but over the course of their administrations Americans came to acknowledge that the federal government was the best-equipped institution to deal with critical domestic and foreign problems."
Berkin offers good background and detailed discussion of each of the four crises she describes. She shows how each crisis constituted a threat to the fledgling American nation rather than an exaggerated local incident that the government tried to exploit for its own purposes. The resolution of each crises worked to strengthen the Federal government and Americans sense of patriotism and loyalty to the government, even when some Americans might disagree with individual decisions.
Thus, Berkin argues that the Whiskey Rebellion, over the government's power to tax, was resolved largely through the great personal admiration Americans had for George Washington. The Genet Affair, involving a French minister's attempt to end-run the national government to secure support for revolutionary France, led to a realization of the Executive Branch's role in the conduct of foreign affairs beyond the personal prestige of the individual holding the presidency. The XYZ affair involving an attempt by the French minister to extort bribes and loans in exchange for peace with France, led to Americans of all political stripes uniting in the face of this foreign effort to separate Americans from each other and from their government. The Alien and Sedition Acts showed both that commitment to the national government was stronger than commitment to party and that criticism of government enactments was based on the Constitution itself, rather than on a rejection of constitutionalism and of nationalism.
Berkin concludes:
"The arc of nationalism can thus be traced through the crises of the 179os. The trust placed in Washington as an individual, so critical in the approval of his handling of the Whiskey Rebellion, was transformed during the Genet affair into a respect for the office he held. The XYZ affair helped Americans recognize their shared identity, a national identity that limited the power of provincialism to shape their views and their political choices. And the challenge to the Alien and Sedition acts demonstrated that there was no longer an anti-Constitution movement but a loyalty to the Constitution that could withstand a difference in interpretation of the powers it invested in the federal government. This loyalty was fundamental to the acceptance of the notion of a loyal opposition in politics. And the idea of a loyal opposition helped sustain the Union until the struggle over the survival of slavery created a breach too broad and too deep to be mended without bloodshed."
Berkin writes clearly and well, perhaps as a result of long years experience in college teaching. She states the goals of her book clearly in the introduction, presents her materials clearly and coherently in short, digestible sections in each chapter, repeats and summarizes her materials as she proceeds, and reaches a compelling understandable conclusion in the final section of her book.
Berkin's "A Sovereign People" tells an important story about the growth of American nationalism and about the importance of loyalty. It reminded me in today's difficult time about the importance of American nationalism and about how Americans of differing political views and persuasions can disagree with one another while retaining a sense of mutual respect together with a strong commitment to American identity.
Robin Friedman
October 9, 2021
A fascinating and compelling reframing of the first decade of the federal government and how it became the authority it is today. I think “nationalism” is a misleading word, and what Berkin argues for is American constitutionalism, a loyalty to and reverence of a set of rules and principles through which a nation emerges.
July 14, 2017
It's a very smooth, easy read about America in the 1790s. Berkin contends that we look at the issues of that decade through the lens of party politics, and while that makes sense - there's another way to view it. Berkin wants to look at it by how it affected a rising sense of American nationalism. She contends, and argues generally effectively, that some of the big crises of this period helped allow for more respect for Constitution, and increased authority of the national government.
She looks at four major crises of the period: the Whiskey Rebellion, the "Citizen" Genet episode, the XYZ Affair, and the Alien-Sedition Act. She argues that the Whiskey Rebellion was subdued largely by the respect most everyone had for George Washington. The Citizen Genet saw people rally around the office of the presidency itself (as Genet tried to conduct foreign diplomacy by directly engaging governors and the American people, in what turned out to be a failed effort to work around Washington himself). In the XYZ Affair, people rose to defend not merely the president, but the nation itself. A shared national identity was emerging that went beyond state interests. The Alien-Sedition Act controversy showed that even those who had opposed the Constitution made their arguments by defending the Constitution. It was now an issue of how you defend the Constitution, not if it's a good thing or not.
This is a pretty well made argument, though it falters a little in the Alien & Sedition Act chapter. True, people were now arguing about constitutionality rather than the Constitution, but she pressed the point a bit much. Jefferson's Kentucky Resolution was defining states' rights broadly enough to break the federal government. Also, Berkin has a pro-Federalist Party approach throughout - and that's fine, but doesn't work too well with the Alien & Sedition Acts. Oh, she doesn't really defend them, but wants people to understand why they were passed and minimizes their impact. It's an indirect, impartial defense of some really horrible legislation.
Still, overall it's a really well-done book that makes its points in clear and effective ways.
She looks at four major crises of the period: the Whiskey Rebellion, the "Citizen" Genet episode, the XYZ Affair, and the Alien-Sedition Act. She argues that the Whiskey Rebellion was subdued largely by the respect most everyone had for George Washington. The Citizen Genet saw people rally around the office of the presidency itself (as Genet tried to conduct foreign diplomacy by directly engaging governors and the American people, in what turned out to be a failed effort to work around Washington himself). In the XYZ Affair, people rose to defend not merely the president, but the nation itself. A shared national identity was emerging that went beyond state interests. The Alien-Sedition Act controversy showed that even those who had opposed the Constitution made their arguments by defending the Constitution. It was now an issue of how you defend the Constitution, not if it's a good thing or not.
This is a pretty well made argument, though it falters a little in the Alien & Sedition Act chapter. True, people were now arguing about constitutionality rather than the Constitution, but she pressed the point a bit much. Jefferson's Kentucky Resolution was defining states' rights broadly enough to break the federal government. Also, Berkin has a pro-Federalist Party approach throughout - and that's fine, but doesn't work too well with the Alien & Sedition Acts. Oh, she doesn't really defend them, but wants people to understand why they were passed and minimizes their impact. It's an indirect, impartial defense of some really horrible legislation.
Still, overall it's a really well-done book that makes its points in clear and effective ways.
June 1, 2017
***I received my copy through Goodreads Giveaways in exchange for an honest review.***
This is the story of how Washington, Hamilton, and John Adams made sure the fledgling hot mess known as the United States didn't fall apart through a series of crises. There was a lot more military action by the Feds that one might realize, taken on rebellious factions who wouldn't play nice with the Constitution or the new government. It's an interesting historical counterpoint to everyone who screams about the Founding Fathers' commitment to states rights, because their actions led to stronger Federalism.
On the Whiskey Rebellion: "Under these fraught circumstances, the refusal to obey a law passed by Congress was, in effect, a denial of the authority and legitimacy of that federal government. To allow the rebels a victory would be to concede that other segments of American society could pick and choose which laws to obey and which laws to ignore. The defeat of the whiskey rebels would provide dramatic proof of the government's readiness to enforce its laws" (9). In short, George Washington was not there to play.
So can we bring the Founding Fathers back to deal with those nuts in Oregon...?
This is the story of how Washington, Hamilton, and John Adams made sure the fledgling hot mess known as the United States didn't fall apart through a series of crises. There was a lot more military action by the Feds that one might realize, taken on rebellious factions who wouldn't play nice with the Constitution or the new government. It's an interesting historical counterpoint to everyone who screams about the Founding Fathers' commitment to states rights, because their actions led to stronger Federalism.
On the Whiskey Rebellion: "Under these fraught circumstances, the refusal to obey a law passed by Congress was, in effect, a denial of the authority and legitimacy of that federal government. To allow the rebels a victory would be to concede that other segments of American society could pick and choose which laws to obey and which laws to ignore. The defeat of the whiskey rebels would provide dramatic proof of the government's readiness to enforce its laws" (9). In short, George Washington was not there to play.
So can we bring the Founding Fathers back to deal with those nuts in Oregon...?
July 22, 2020
"The arc of [American] nationalism can...be traced through the crises of the 1790s." This sentence, in the "Conclusion" of Professor Berkin's short history of the Washington and Adams administrations, concisely reflects the thesis of her book. The book describes the well documented crises that faced the fledgling Government and its Constitution: The Whiskey Rebellion, The Citizen Genet Affair, The XYZ Affair and The Alien and Sedition Acts. Berkin's point, which is well argued, is that these four crises ultimately forged a widespread, unifying nationalism among the young nation's often divided citizens and helped establish the Federal Government as the legitimate source of national law and diplomacy, even in the face of the continuing claims and calumnies of Jeffersonian republicans.
May 18, 2019
This book looks at the early American Republic, particularly via several crises, including the Whiskey Rebellion and the XYZ Affair, that the author believes helped cement the power of the Federal Government over the states and made the Constitution the supreme law of the land. It is an interesting premise, but the author's style didn't make the period come to life, and it often seemed that she left out many of the important parts of the stories that she planned to tell. She also didn't draw the four different crises together that well.
May 10, 2018
Like the book's introduction says, I have only ever seen the first 10 years of the United States as a string of conflict and failure, most attached to John Adams. As I have been working my way through presidential biographies this year I have found my taught view of these events constantly challenged, this book gives voice to those doubts and places the events, not in the view of Jefferson, but in the view of the Federalists who fought them. Well written, and well received.
January 5, 2021
An insightful look at four different crises, including the Whiskey Rebellion, the Citizen Genet affair, and the XYZ Affair that, together, forged different aspects of the United States. The book ties these seemingly different crises together to underscore how they affected the US's early development. An interesting thesis and a great history of each of these seminal events in the life of the early United States.
March 25, 2021
This book discusses the different events of the 1790s (XYZ Affair, Alien & Sedition Acts, etc.) and makes the case that these events were the catalysts for US Nationalism to take root. Interesting book that gives just enough info about the events to be understandable but not so detailed that you loose interest.
September 30, 2018
Thoroughly enjoyed Berkin's writing style, development of her chapters, argument about the birth of American nationalism, and presentation of her research. Found this book very helpful in formulating my lectures on the late 1700s and a paper I have my students write about the Sedition Act.
October 13, 2018
Professor Berkin’s reframing of key events from the 1790s allows one to see the growing sense of nationalism present in the newly minted United States, and the contributions of key Federalists in preserving the Constitution. Her writing is clear, concise, and illuminating.
January 2, 2019
This book could have been interesting but instead it proved to be more or less just a heavy-handed dose of progressive nationalism constitutional thought. Berkin's treatment of her subjects is heavy-handed and lacking in any nuance whatsoever.
June 29, 2022
I enjoyed learning about what happened in the 1790s with our founding fathers. I had no idea that the some affairs existed in America that affected politics and countries outside of America. I would love to read more books like this!
July 6, 2017
Excellent read about four key crises that tested our young nation. The fast paced writing is novel-like and an enjoyable read.
March 13, 2019
A good general overview of the political significance of the 1790s.
July 29, 2024
Talks about the 3 major crises during the late 1700's that helped to form our country for the better.
February 9, 2025
Very interesting book.
September 19, 2023
I enjoyed this book. Seeing how vulnerable our infant nation was during this period makes one realize how fortunate we were to have founding fathers who may not agreed with each other all the time but certainly knew how to compromise for the common good.
One shudders to think what would have been the consequences if the leaders of the Whisky Rebellion had their way or if Citizen Genet were able to drag the US into another war with England, so soon after our fight for independence.
Berkin successfully demonstrates how the US stood up to Talleyrand's bullying tactics in the XYZ affair and how the Adams administration was able to stand firm against France while simultaneously extending an open path towards diplomacy which resulted in averting open warfare with that country.
Interestingly, as Berkin points out the issues of the Alien and Sedition acts are still with us today... an open hostility to certain groups of aliens whether they be Irish or German as they were in the 1790s or Mexican or Chinese as they are today. Funny how no matter how much things change they still remain the same. Also, the Sedition Acts in which the Adams administration tried to squelch dissension in the press met such resistance in the opposing party, and how the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions stood up to this curbing of first amendment rights. Belkin points out that this was a twofold debate one of First Amendment rights and another of states' rights as to whether the federal government was overstepping its Constitutional limits. Issues that still haunt us to this day, The key point of this book is that although these issues may be with us today they are still issues meant to be debated under one union under the interpretation of the constitution. Back in the beginning of the 1790s, the states saw themselves as individual states participating in a new government still feeling the heat of revolution in its blood. By the end of that decade, these fervent passions were transferred to a feeling of cooperation as one nation rather than as individual states.
Another good book that exemplifies this unique period in American history is "Enemyship" by Jeremy Engels.
One shudders to think what would have been the consequences if the leaders of the Whisky Rebellion had their way or if Citizen Genet were able to drag the US into another war with England, so soon after our fight for independence.
Berkin successfully demonstrates how the US stood up to Talleyrand's bullying tactics in the XYZ affair and how the Adams administration was able to stand firm against France while simultaneously extending an open path towards diplomacy which resulted in averting open warfare with that country.
Interestingly, as Berkin points out the issues of the Alien and Sedition acts are still with us today... an open hostility to certain groups of aliens whether they be Irish or German as they were in the 1790s or Mexican or Chinese as they are today. Funny how no matter how much things change they still remain the same. Also, the Sedition Acts in which the Adams administration tried to squelch dissension in the press met such resistance in the opposing party, and how the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions stood up to this curbing of first amendment rights. Belkin points out that this was a twofold debate one of First Amendment rights and another of states' rights as to whether the federal government was overstepping its Constitutional limits. Issues that still haunt us to this day, The key point of this book is that although these issues may be with us today they are still issues meant to be debated under one union under the interpretation of the constitution. Back in the beginning of the 1790s, the states saw themselves as individual states participating in a new government still feeling the heat of revolution in its blood. By the end of that decade, these fervent passions were transferred to a feeling of cooperation as one nation rather than as individual states.
Another good book that exemplifies this unique period in American history is "Enemyship" by Jeremy Engels.
Displaying 1 - 18 of 18 reviews