The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion

by Peter Jackson

An epic historical consideration of the Mongol conquest of Western Asia and the spread of Islam during the years of non-Muslim rule

The Mongol conquest of the Islamic world began in the early thirteenth century when Genghis Khan and his warriors overran Central Asia and devastated much of Iran. Distinguished historian Peter Jackson offers a fresh and fascinating consideration of the years of infidel Mongol rule in Western Asia, drawing from an impressive array of primary sources as well as modern studies to demonstrate how Islam not only survived the savagery of the conquest, but spread throughout the empire.

This unmatched study goes beyond the well-documented Mongol campaigns of massacre and devastation to explore different aspects of an immense imperial event that encompassed what is now Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Afghanistan, as well as Central Asia and parts of eastern Europe. It examines in depth the cultural consequences for the incorporated Islamic lands, the Muslim experience of Mongol sovereignty, and the conquerors’ eventual conversion to Islam.

Genres: History, Islam, Nonfiction, Religion, Middle East, Medieval

640 pages, Hardcover

Published May 23, 2017

About the author

There is more than one author with this name
Professor of Medieval History
Keele University

Reviews

[Always Pouting · Rating 4 out of 5]

I didn't realize this was 640 pages and boy did that feel like a long 640 pages. Personally I had no prior knowledge about this period of history so I struggles at times to keep the names straight and keep track of who was who. I also was not expecting it to go into chronological detail about events or be as broad as it was. I thought this was going to be a much narrower book about the affects of Mongol conquest on the Islamic world specifically, and plenty of details on that were included in there. I did learn a lot though so I'm glad I made my way through this. Would recommend for those who want a thorough understanding about this period, but it's not really what one would call a light read.

[Dmitri · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is an excellent alternative if you want to expand beyond some of the popular histories of the Mongol conquests that have been written recently. Like colleagues David Morgan and George Lane, Peter Jackson is a respected expert in the field. In this work he offers a fresh look at the effects the Mongol empire had on the Islamic world. This might not be the first book you would read on the Mongols, but it could be the second if you have also read about the earlier spread of Islam.

After an introduction to the medieval sources and chapters on Central Asia before the conquests origins of the Mongols and their westward military advances are delivered without delay. Their political consolidation, further campaigns, the breakup of unified rule and the advent of internecine warfare are reviewed in a forthright fashion. Topical sections follow on the so-called Pax Mongolica and intercontinental commerce, Muslim states as client kingdoms and the eventual Islamization of the infidel rulers.

Jackson does not refute the initial conquests under Genghis Khan were likely the most brutal and bloody that the world had seen. It could hardly be argued otherwise although the primary accounts include varying degrees of hyperbole. After decades of depredation between the initial assaults on Kwarezm in 1220 to the defeat of the Baghdad caliphate in 1258, an effort to restore the cities of Islam began. This was done mainly through the efforts of Muslim survivors for the benefit of their Mongol rulers.

The 1260 reversal by the Mamluks in Syria and the ascension of Kublai Khan in China marked the start of forty years of inter-Mongol fighting that split the empire into four separate khanates. These wars brought further destruction and strife to the region. In the intermittent periods of peace that followed the Mongol Ilkhanate (present-day Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan) and China's Yuan Dynasty revived traditional communication routes between the near and far east, promoting trade and cultural exchange.

With regards to Islam Mongol law forbade imposing a state religion. Tolerance of religious pluralism had been typical in past empires, perhaps with the exception of the Byzantines. In contrast to Muslim rule the early Mongols treated all faiths equally, ended special taxes on non-Muslims, and contravened other aspects of Islamic law when it conflicted with their own beliefs. Over time most of the Mongols in the three western Khanates would become Muslim, and far less forbearing.

Much has been said in recent years of the Mongols religious tolerance, empowerment of women and enablement of commerce. Some of this is shown here to be anachronistic or at least overly simplistic. It is not argued unequivocally that Mongols made major civilizational advances over prior empires. With the exception of several brief reigns of regents men continued to monopolize power. Jackson shows Mongol rule was not as oppressive as previously regarded and fostered world connectivity.

This work is a sophisticated review of the evidence available. Many books relegate sources to footnotes and bibliographies. Jackson integrates these materials into the text. This can be tedious unless you really want to know how the information was derived. The last third of this book goes deeply into the religious and genealogical justifications of the later Ilkhanate rulers, which was obscure and difficult to process. The focus on the Muslim milieu opens an enlightening window into a pivotal period of history.

[Annette · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book brings both chronological events as well as some brief general parts. For example culture or art of war, which don’t necessarily need dates or names to be explained. And this is the part I enjoyed, and I think that is what would appeal to mass audience. The chronological events are detailed with dates and names (as anyone would expect), but this makes the read more appropriate for buffs of history.

[Christopher · Rating 4 out of 5]

A scholarly overview of the collision of Mongol politics with the Islamic world and how they influenced each other. Makes the case that is was much more an influence going in both directions than is commonly presumed by many scholars. The comparison of the de facto sectarian equity of the Mongol Yasa with the chauvinist position of Sharia law may strike some as a very modern divide still relevant for many countries-including Central Asian countries.

[Czarny Pies · Rating 3 out of 5]

After having read a year ago Jack Weatherford's absurd popular history "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World " I decided to read Peter Jackson's very academic "The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion" in order to get a more sensible view of the great Genghis Khan. I was very disappointed. While Weather's book is an absurd panegyric, Jackson gets bogged down in the details. Both writers have trouble drawing sensible conclusions. Neither author has improved on Rene Grousset's "The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia" first publish in 1939. Both Jackson and Weatherford should have done better because they had the advantage of being able to consult "The Secret History of the Mongols" a 13th century work in Mongolian which was not translated into English until the 21st century.
All three authors agree on the basic notion that Genghis Khan (1158-1227) should not be seen as a monster who wildly slaughtered civilian populations. Rather he was a remarkable military leader who organized the Asian steppes into four stable polities. During his life time Genghis Khan conquered a territory that covered 24 million square kilometres. His immediate descendants divided his Empire founding the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the Golden Horde (1262-1502), the Chagatai Khanate-Moghul Empire (1225- 1857) and the Persian Ilkhanate (1256-1335). These four polities combined to maintain the Silk Road which facilitated trade from China to Europe as well as the exchange of technologies and ideas between Asia and Europe. The four regimes promoted learning, built hospitals and maintained the rule of law.
A major irritant and tremendous obstacle to following Jackson's arguments are that he uses contemporary transliterations of Mongol, Turkic and Arabic words. Thus "Vizier" becomes "Wazir" and "Khan" becomes "Qaghan". "Genghis Khan" becomes "Chinggis Khan". Why it does not become "Chinggis Qaghan" is not explained. Also, worth noting the "Golden Horde" becomes the Ulus of Batu and Orda while the "Chagatai Khanate-Moghul Empire" becomes the Ulus of Chaghadai. Reading Jackson one is lost both mentally and geographically.
Jackson includes a glossary defining transliterated terms but which neglects to indicated what the previously used terms had been. The maps found in the book are also of very little assistance.
Arriving at conclusions is a inevitably extremely difficult. They are gaps in the contemporary chronicles and the chroniclers are too biased to considered trustworthy. Jackson like most academic writers feels that the monstrous Genghis Khan of literature was most likely an exaggeration but that he was at times very brutal.
In other places, Jackson's interpretations seem simply curious to me. He notes that many Muslim regional chiefs, rallied to Genghis Khan and states that they did so out of fear. He never entertains the idea, the Genghis Khan was skilled at diplomacy and recruited allies from dissatisfied communities within the lands that he conquered.
Jackson acknowledges that Khan had much better gunpowder than any of the forces he encountered but unlike Weatherford discounts this as a major factor in Genghis Khan's successes. Jackson rather feels that Genghis Khan was successful because Chinese siege engines (catapults, trebuchet's, etc.) were much better. Jackson also states without explaining what he is basing his thesis on that Genghis Khan would have had no superiority in open-field battles and that the opposing armies erred by retreating into their cities in order to fight sieges.
Jackson spends a great deal of time describing how the regimes of Genghis Khan began by accommodating Islam and then slowly converted. He argues that first the pagan Mongols tended to be tolerant in religious matters. Later they converted so as to align themselves with the officers in their armies who were overwhelmingly Muslim. I suspect that Jackson is largely accurate. However, he ignores that axiom of historians of classical Greece and Rome, that pagan peoples see religion as being essentially local with every locality or city having its own deity. The typical pagan approach is then to co-opt not to suppress local religions in any land that is conquered.
Jackson is guarded in his comments on the Silk Road. The Chinggisid regimes simplified the taxes and duties which still remained significant. In most years, the Silk Road was relatively safe but there were periods when commerce was interrupted and danger was never completely absent.
Because of multiple irritants I am giving this solidly researched and erudite book a mere three stars. Weatherford's book aimed at the mass market has the virtues of being more readable and taking clear positions.

[TG Lin · Rating 3 out of 5]

史料評論的比重較高。對我這種相關的歷史事件一知半解的讀者，讀來頗為辛苦。

[Kevin Moynihan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Incredibly difficult given it’s depth but fun to try. Lots of maps which really helps. The 1200s were a rough time.

[Eressea · Rating 4 out of 5]

今年讀完的第五本伊斯蘭藏書，廣場難得出電子書啊
花了比預期多很多的時間，總算讀完了
原因當然又是小孩開大車，開不動啊~~
原先是想看本書是否能補充Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road
一書中伊斯蘭與佛教的互動
不過在本書中篇幅不多，只在書末有一些討論而已

本書帶讀者先復習一遍蒙古西征史
並提出幾個習見的通說，其實大有再研究的空間
如蒙古治世令商貿往來成本下降，實則四大汗國不甚和睦
商旅並不如想像中的暢通
另一個是從伊利汗號的意義再研究
重探伊利汗國跟大元的關係
都對我這種沾醬油蒙元史讀者有振聾發聵的功效

只不過再來講蒙古西征對伊斯蘭世界的衝擊
就內力不足無法消化了
最近發現如果基礎知識不足，硬讀磚頭級史學論文書
都會特別感覺翻譯坳口，人名地名眾多易迷失在瑣碎的史料細節中
這本也不意外，而且在讀不懂的狀態下
更容易發現編輯錯誤
總之就是還要再多練練再來讀
感謝出版社願意出這類一點都不歷史普及的史地書
能看懂的應該很少，註定賠本吧

[Bryn Hammond · Rating 3 out of 5]

Of Peter Jackson's earlier The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (first edition) I wrote:

Informative but cautious. Ideally, a book with this title now would pay attention to cultural interchanges; art history has much to say on the Mongols and Europe.

(There's a second edition as of 2018, which I have invested in but haven't read). In The Mongols and the Islamic World -- in a 'Visual Arts' section of his (cautious) chapter on the Pax Mongolica, Jackson writes: 'This chapter would be lamentably incomplete without reference, lastly, to the arts.' Still, my ideal history would integrate the arts, which have been so important to a re-evaluation of the Mongols in the 21st century. Intellectual history and cultural effects, I'd just like to see more of, and not hived off from the main narrative.

This soberly written history is bound to be the standard work for years to come. For detail, I still wouldn't miss Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance and if at all possible The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256-1353.

[Edith · Rating 4 out of 5]

A great overview of primary sources. An up to date overview of Ilkhanate history. Arranged in topical interests.

[A.J. Susmana · Rating 3 out of 5]

Sumbangan Kaum Barbar bagi Dunia Islam?



Pada abad ke- 13 sampai abad ke-14 M, Bangsa Mongol adalah bangsa yang berjaya yang sanggup menciptakan kekaisaran maha luas di muka bumi. Barangkali yang terluas yang pernah diciptakan suatu bangsa. Wilayah imperiumnya meliputi Tiongkok, Asia Tengah, Asia Barat dan Eropa (terutama Rusia): antara Laut Pasifik di timur dan laut Kaspia di sebelah barat. Kekaisaran maha luas ini diciptakan dalam tempo kurang lebih 20 tahun sejak pendirian Kekaisaran Mongol pada 1206 M dan Temujin, tokoh utama penyatuan suku-suku Mongol yang dahulu saling berantem, diurapi oleh majelis suku-suku Mongol sebagai kaisar bergelar Jenghis Khan yang diartikan oleh Peter Jackson dalam buku ini “Khan yang keras atau kejam”. (h. 103) Arti ini tentu berbeda dengan dengan para ahli sebelumnya yang mengira bahwa Jenghis Khan berarti Penguasa Dunia atau “Emperor Terkuat dari Semua Bangsa” seperti yang ditulis Liang Liji dalam bukunya yang berjudul Dari Relasi Upeti ke Mitra Strategis, 2000 Tahun Perjalanan Hubungan Tiongkok-Indonesia.

Jenghis Khan, Khan yang Keras-Kejam ini justru menemukan kata Indonesia yang tepat yaitu “Bengis”. Entah mengapa “Bengis” yang bunyinya seperti “Jenghis” justru tidak digunakan oleh penerjemah buku ini. Apakah “Bengis” ada hubungannya dengan kemunculan dan sepak terjang Jenghis Khan yang bengis itu? Kebengisan Temujin mulai ditunjukkan dalam proses awal menuju pendirian Kekaisaran Mongol yaitu ketika Temujin berhasil menuntaskan balas dendamnya kepada suku Tatar, yang dahulu membunuh ayahnya Yesugei dan telah menyebabkan kesengsaraan pada Temujin kecil yang berumur 9 tahun beserta ibunya dan saudara-saudaranya yang “….terpaksa menukar gaya hidup penggembala menjadi penghuni hutan.” Temujin sendiri yang memimpin pembantaian hampir semua laki-laki dewasa suku itu. (h.102). Selanjutnya hampir semua penaklukan yang dilakukan oleh Jenghis Khan tak lepas dari sifat kebengisan. Peter Jackson menulis di Epilog (h.623) “ Setiap pengamat muslim pada pertengahan abad ke-13, yang diminta memberikan kesimpulan tentang bangsa Mongol, mungkin akan mengulang kata- kata buronan dari Bukhara yang dikutip Juwayni: ‘Mereka datang, mereka menghancurkan, mereka membakar, mereka membunuh, mereka menjarah, lalu mereka pergi.”

Buku ini tak hendak mengamini kata-kata Juwayni di atas. “Namun historiografi terbaru lebih cenderung sepakat dengan penilaian yang diberikan Rashid al-Din: Peristiwa atau keadaan apakah pada zaman ini yang lebih penting dibandingkan awal masa pemerintahan Jenghis Khan sehingga mampu memulai era baru? Perlu diakui, Rashid al-Din menulis kisah sejarahnya lebih dari empat dasawarsa setelah Juwayni, dibawah (dan tidak kurang pentingya, untuk) seorang Ilkhan muslim; …Namun, sangat banyak cendekiawan yang kini setuju dunia mengalami perubahan yang signifikan setelah penaklukan itu dan, dalam setiap aspek, bukan menjadi lebih buruk.” (h.623-624).

Begitulah buku ini pun memberikan perspektif baru bagaimana Penaklukan Mongol yang menjamin kebebasan beragama semua rakyat taklukannya, memberi sisi positif juga bagi perluasan agama Islam ke seluruh dunia terutama ke bagian timur. Di bawah kuasa cucu Jenghis Khan: Kubilai Khan, Islam mendapatkan kebebasan mengarungi dan memperluas jejaringnya di Asia Timur termasuk Nusantara. Marco Polo yang tiba di Aceh kini tahun 1292 M memberikan kesaksian tentang kerajaan-kerajaan yang setia pada Khan dan juga Perlak, yang baru saja masuk Islam akibat pengaruh pedagang Saracen. (Anthony Reid, Penyusun, Sumatera Tempo Doeloe, dari Marco Polo sampai Tan Malaka, Komunitas Bambu, Depok, 2014;7). Tan Ta Sen pun menginformasikan dan meyakinkan bahwa pasukan penyerang ke Singasari untuk menghukum Raja Kertanagara tahun 1293 M itu banyak yang beragama muslim dan dipimpin para komandan muslim seperti Shih-pi dan Ike Messe, yang berasal dari Uighur, yang kelak memberikan basis kemudahan operasi Cheng Ho. “Jika ada serdadu Mongol di antara pasukan penyerbu, itu pasti berjumlah sedikit dan lebih bersifat simbolis.”(Tan Ta Sen, Cheng Ho, Penyebar Islam dari China ke Nusantara, Kompas, Juni 2018;261)

Buku ini layak dibaca oleh sidang pembaca Indonesia yang pada hari ini mayoritas memeluk Islam. Ia memberikan informasi yang detil mengenai kebangkitan Mongol dan bagaimana akhirnya mereka berubah dari bangsa barbar dan menindas umat Islam hingga menjadi mualaf-Islam dan juga menyumbangkan pertemuan antar budaya terutama Asia dan Eropa yang damai di bawah kuasanya. Begitulah misionaris pertama Gereja Katolik, Odorico da Perdenone, seorang imam Fransiskan pun tiba di Majapahit tahun 1322 M. Dengan begitu buku ini tentu saja memberikan pelajaran yang berharga bagi bangsa seperti Indonesia yang bercita-cita menjadi mercusuar dunia. Bukankah kemunculan Majapahit dan kejayaannya di bawah Raja Hayam Wuruk hingga masa kematian Gajah Mada tahun 1364 M justru tercapai ketika Tiongkok berada di bawah kuasa Mongol?

[Filippo Cipriani · Rating 2 out of 5]

"I am sorry to write you such a long letter, but I did not have time to write you short one".

Let me start by saying I am not an expert in the field, and I read this for pleasure. Please take my comments accordingly. It appeared to me that this book was a knowledge dump of what certainly appears to be a huge effort of scholarly research. There seems no plan on how the information is presented and trivial details are listed alongside important insights. If one wanted to be unkind, it could be said that this seems to be the equivalent of a book report from the recent 2015 full translation of the "Secret History of the Mongols" by a high school student without an essay plan.

For example there is a section that lists Mongol taxes. I love economic history and love reading about taxes, but this was just a list. It had no context, did not explain how the state finances relied on which taxes, how it affected economic incentives, nothing. Its just a list.

There is a lot to be said for the power of synthesis, of capturing the salient element in a situation and bringing it to the fore. This book only rarely does that, and is guilty of the opposite most of the time.

Finally, a sign that this isnt a work of the highest calibre, the book says the Mongols had the compound bow which was invented in the 20th century, not the composite bow, which is what they had. To me it is the equivalent of confusing calvary with cavalry - inexcusable.

[Norman Smith · Rating 3 out of 5]

If I were giving points for scholarship, this would be a five-star book. Unfortunately, I did not have the background to understand a lot of it.

Jackson assumes that his readers will be familiar with the general situation in Asia during the period under consideration - the 13th through the 15th centuries - to follow his work, and, given that this appears to be aimed at Asian specialists, is a pretty realistic assumption.

I have read a few books on the period and place but I was missing the knowledge needed for a lot of this. There were some sentences where I thought, "The only words there that I understood were the articles and prepositions."

Leaving that aside, I do think I learned a lot during the course of the book. Jackson is an effective teacher. The book is well-organized and well-written. The reader wasn't sufficiently well-read. So, I'm giving this three stars as a heads-up to other readers: Be prepared!

[Cat · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was an interesting read. It's a fascinating, scholarly look at the Mongol invasion and how the Islamic world influenced it. I took a college course in Middle East Studies in college and always found it interesting, but we didn't cover this! Peter Jackson makes that point of the Moslems kind of winning the war! Their culture truly influenced the Mongols to a very large degree and spread Islam as a result. Pretty neat idea! I enjoyed reading this book over the course of a year. gave me lots of food for thought and much to wonder about how the invaded affect the invaders in other cultures....great read!
I received a Kindle ARC in exchange for a fair review from Netgalley.

[Tsai Wei-chieh · Rating 4 out of 5]

有关蒙古人征服中东所造成的破坏向来是个争议性很高的话题。其影响之深，可从当地人仍旧以蒙古对波斯与中东的侵略来比喻美国进攻伊拉克一事略窥一二。如今关于这段历史的最新研究，我们有了英国基尔大学（Keele University）历史系荣退教授彼得·杰克生（Peter Jackson）的新作《蒙古人与伊斯兰世界：从征服到改宗》（The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion）（耶鲁大学出版社，2017）。本书运用了大量的波斯文史料，探讨了蒙古人如何在短时间内征服了广大的穆斯林领地，并且比较了蒙古征服中东期间与后来内战所造成的破坏规模，以及蒙古人如何让其穆斯林臣民接受其统治，后来蒙古人如何接纳伊斯兰教，以及蒙古统治对伊斯兰世界的影响等议题。杰克生认为穆斯林对西辽称霸中亚的看法预示了后来对蒙古帝国征服伊斯兰世界的评价，但是两者之间存在不小的差异。而旭烈兀西征的大军底下充满了许多穆斯林的同盟军这点，不仅使其对手难以利用圣战（jihād）的名义来抵抗蒙古大军，并且还有助降低其他穆斯林的反对。大规模的屠杀主要发生于成吉思汗统治时期，而非后来的旭烈兀西征。因为旭烈兀西征时许多城市主动选择了投降蒙古大军，所以也避免了被屠杀的命运。不过杰克生也认为蒙古帝国后来的连年内战，难以配得上“蒙古治世”（Pax Mongolica）一词，但是蒙古的统治所带来的东西方之间物质、科技与艺术交流成就确实难以忽视。而蒙古帝国征服伊斯兰世界的结果则是大大促进了伊斯兰教的传播。对于蒙古帝国史与伊斯兰教史有兴趣的读者不应错过本书。

[Ahmad Wali Ahmad Yar · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fascinating work on rationalizing the motives behind the conversion of Mongol rulers of Central and Western Asia to Islam. Peter Jackson has gathered an incredible amount of primary sources with amazing descriptions of the events and perspectives of the authors. I highly recommend the book for those who are interested in the history of the region and have primary knowledge of history, culture and languages of the region.

[Andrew Garrie · Rating 4 out of 5]

Exceptionally well researched and does a very good job of providing a well balanced examination of the subject matter. But I don't think I have ever seen someone use their very strongest assets and also make them their worst problems inside a historical work. Jackson hits you with so many names, that jump so quickly between different time periods and locations that it is like a bludgeon. The work he did is absolutely fascinating, but my god, is it dry.

[Wahyu Awaludin · Rating 4 out of 5]

Penuh data yang berlimpah, langka dan menarik, terutama tentang proses Mongol menjadi Muslim. Kemampuan riset penulis Tak tertandingi, Tapi penuturannya sangat membosankan. Sama sekali gak ada storytelling nya. Ini sungguh buku yang sulit untuk dicerna Karena Saya buta Sejarah Mongol. Saya banyak skimming demi bisa selesaikan buku ini sambil bertahan dari kebosanan.

[Dee]

Setting this one aside about 120 pages in because it's just too dense and academic for me right now. An absolute wealth of information, with many fascinating tidbits crammed in all the corners, but just too close-focus and intricate analysis of sources, when I am (almost permanently these days) in the headspace for a slightly broader, more contemplating-the-themes sort of review.

[Younus · Rating 4 out of 5]

a great resource to learn about the mongols' relationship with islam, muslims & islamic history in general. although it's hard to keep track of the names and dates at times.