Lectures on the Philosophy of World History: Introduction

by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hugh Bar Nisbet (Translator), Duncan Forbes (Introduction)

An English translation of Hegel's introduction to his lectures on the philosophy of history, based directly on the standard German edition by Johannes Hoffmeister, first published in 1955. The previous English translation, by J. Sibree, first appeared in 1857 and was based on the defective German edition of Karl Hegel, to which Hoffmeister's edition added a large amount of new material previously unknown to English readers, derived from earlier editors. In the introduction to his lectures, Hegel lays down the principles and aims which underlie his philosophy of history, and provides an outline of the philosophy of history itself. The comprehensive and voluminous survey of world history which followed the introduction in the original lectures is of less interest to students of Hegel's thought than the introduction, and is therefore not included in this volume.

Genres: Philosophy, History, Nonfiction, Classics, School, German Literature, Germany

292 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1837

About the author

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was a German philosopher and one of the founding figures of German Idealism. Influenced by Kant's transcendental idealism and Rousseau's politics, Hegel formulated an elaborate system of historical development of ethics, government, and religion through the dialectical unfolding of the Absolute. Hegel was one of the most well-known historicist philosopher, and his thought presaged continental philosophy, including postmodernism. His system was inverted into a materialist ideology by Karl Marx, originally a member of the Young Hegelian faction.

Reviews

[Luís · Rating 3 out of 5]

The "greatness" of a nation and the individuals who illustrate this greatness, which, according to Hegel, has only one time and corresponds to a phase of expansion that can not last forever: it is the genius of a nation or people that captures that and brings the human, artistic, cultural, economic, social, legal and "military" qualities of that nation and people to the highest at some point of history, until the time of another people comes, in other geographical areas. Because nothing lasts, the nation or the people that shone yesterday or are leading today and tomorrow leave its place to another power, the right momentum.
Is it a Law of History and a Law of Nature?
This fact is not the place to say whether Hegel is right or wrong, but it must admit that the point is interesting.
Remember that this theme was the subject of a lecture, and the reflection of those who received it could very well feed the philosopher's thought.

[Raquel · Rating 4 out of 5]

Uma obra cheia de premissas perigosas. O contexto em que foram elaboradas já não as clarifica completamente e, descontextualizar certas frases é contribuir para o exílio de Hegel no mundo contemporâneo das ideias.
Independentemente disso, o livro merece esta classificação. Apesar da incompletude desta obra, de algumas fontes dúbias na sua elaboração e da sua brevidade, a obra está cheia de substância. Para se concordar ou discordar dela, mas é um livro denso. Há observações muito maduras e há outras que são fruto de um optimismo muito ingénuo.

Precisamos de nos socorrer das inúmeras introduções a esta obra para termos alguns esclarecimentos e percebermos os lados obscuros do sistema hegeliano. Um sistema que opõe a forma e o conteúdo de maneira sistemática. Desta cisão nascem os hegelianos de direita (conservadores) e os hegelianos de esquerda (revolucionários). Estas facções encontraram-se, por fim, no abraço mortal de Estalinegrado.

Como esta obra aborda o conteúdo moral do homem, é inevitável que Hegel se oponha a Kant neste ponto específico, até porque comparava o programa de Kant com o do escolástico que queria aprender a nadar, antes de se aventurar na água.

Se há quem afirme que o jovem Hegel tinha o sonho de ser o "Maquiavel alemão", há quem também insista que o Hegel dos dias do fim era um homem diferente. Também se diz que é a História - e não Hegel -que deve ser condenada.

Contudo, as abordagens de Hegel à moral, ao papel do Estado, ao valor da subjetividade humana deram-lhe o epíteto de "profeta dos totalitarismos." O homem enquanto indivíduo perde a sua relevância, subjectividade e capacidade revolucionária perante um Estado que sabe exactamente o que ele precisa; e sabe, precisamente, porque o superou.

As ambiguidades de Hegel, contudo, não deixam de ser muito persuasivas. Hegel menciona que as personalidades poderosas "têm de pisar em muitas flores inocentes, esmagando muitas coisas no seu caminho." Esta obra é o prelúdio das grandes tragédias do século XX.

A obra está cheia de provocações, como esta: "Só o animal é verdadeiramente inocente. Mas seria necessária uma vasta explicação- tão vasta quanto a própria liberdade - para evitar ou refutar todos os mal-entendidos que em geral surgem da afirmação de que a palavra "inocência" significa ignorância do mal."

Não resisto, contudo, a transcrever uma deliciosa (e maliciosa!) passagem: "Alexandre da Macedónia em parte conquistou a Grécia e depois a Ásia, diz-se portanto, que ele ansiava pela conquista e, como prova, mostra-se que ele fez coisas que resultaram em fama. Que mestre-escola deixou de demonstrar que Alexandre, O Grande, e Júlio César não fossem movidos por essas paixões e, consequentemente, não fossem imorais? Daí se conclui imediatamente que ele, o mestre-escola, é um homem melhor que eles, porque não tem essas paixões, tanto é assim que ele não conquistou a Ásia, nem venceu a Dorio e Porus, mas goza da vida e permitem que outros também gozem dela. Esses psicólogos orgulham-se, especialmente, de contemplar essas excentricidades que pertencem à individualidade das grandes personalidades históricas. O homem deve comer e beber, tem relacionamentos com amigos e conhecidos, tem emoções e ataques temperamentais.
"Nenhum homem é um herói para o seu camareiro" - diz um provérbio muito conhecido - e eu acrecento (e Goethe repetiu-o anos depois):"... não porque o primeiro não seja um herói, mas porque o segundo é um camareiro."
Ele tira as botas do herói, ajuda-o na hora de ir para o leito à noite, sabe se ele prefere champanhe e outras coisas do género. As personalidades históricas deram-se mal na literatura histórica quando atendidas por esse tipo de camareiros cheios de psicologia."

Para Hegel, há liberdades que matam o Estado. Nesta senda, terá sido Hegel o arquitecto das atrocidades do 'Grande Leviatã'?

Para contraposição de ideias, é bom aliar esta leitura ao ensaio de G. Lukács: "O Fascismo Alemão e Hegel."

[Ben · Rating 4 out of 5]

I had a love/hate relationship with this book. For all of his talk of actuality and potentiality, I feel that Hegel's theories were somewhat unfulfilled, but that may be because I align with the Leftist and Young Hegelian interpreters of Hegel more than with the Rightist interpreters of Hegel. Hegel seemed to take the best of Aristotle and the worst of Plato and merge them together. At times I was saying "Yes, yes, yes. . ." and then I let out a long sigh or a frustrated "Noooo!" (Hegel can be such a tease -- a good read related to this is Marcuse's "Reason and Revolution"). This work (Hegel's "Reason in History") had several contradictions, which are not entirely attributable to the fact that this was a rough work, a patchwork of Hegel's lectures on the philosophy of history collected by his students. It is known that Hegel, for all of the potential and the philosophy of freedom to be found within his work -- influential in Marxism, existentialism and even anarchist schools of thought -- are also riddled with authoritarianism and totalitarianism. It is almost like Hegel's potentiality was hindered, though this work was carried on by others who have given the work radical reinterpretations. At times the work channeled Kant, with its talk of Reason and Duty. At times, it called to mind Tolstoyan free will and determinism -- simply insert the word "Providence" in place of "Spirit" and voila. The work is certainly very influential and certainly merits a re-read in the future (perhaps a different translation?), but for now I will simply let the ideas marinate. I prefer to give the work a Leftist reading but it is impossible to ignore the fascistic elements at the heart of these lectures.

As with the work itself, I was similarly in love and yet troubled by Robert Hartman's (the translator) introduction. I dog-eared nearly every page of it though, so while I may not have agreed with him wholeheartedly, I found his analysis interesting and nonetheless worthwhile.

[J. Sebastian · Rating 5 out of 5]

Though the book is difficult, it is fantastic; raising our awareness of the unfolding tapestry of history, of whose weft we form a part, Hegel reveals what history is, and to what end it is directed. This provides material for deep thought and reflection. If you love history you will become more fascinated with it when you have understood this book, but beware: don’t pick up this short volume unless you have plenty of time for the slow reading, mental effort, and courage required to peek behind the veil of history.

Completing Die Vernunft in der Geschichte almost requires a ceremonious game of Civilization, where we can contemplate the history of the world again unfolding, now with a new Hegelian understanding.

[Alec Swartz · Rating 5 out of 5]

First, a bit of humility: while reading this book, I felt for the first time that I actually understood Hegel’s writing. This book is a wonderful introduction to Hegel and his philosophical system. Since it is a short compilation of his lectures and notes, the text is far more accessible than his other books. Frankly, I’m surprised that this book isn’t on more lists of introductory material for those interested in studying Hegel’s thought.

[Petter Nordal · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book messed with my mind: are people and leaders and armies and ideologies and politcal ideas and economics all shadow representations of ideas we generate as we live and breathe and act out history?

[Matthias · Rating 2 out of 5]

C.S. Lewis famously argued that Jesus, for saying things that were so outrageous, must have either been "liar, lunatic, or Lord;" others have pointed out that any given first-century prophet might well be sincerely mistaken, or have a reputation burnished and inflated by later followers. Similarly, repute has it that Hegel, for saying things that were so abstruse, must either have been a genius or a fraud, but my impression here is of someone were most of the sentences are relatively clear, but simply adumbrate relatively mainstream intellectual views of the time, distinguished less by what it's wrong about than by how confidently it is so. I can only further surmise that Hegel must have been an extremely talented lecturer, because this is what set curious young minds of the time (religious or secular, radical or conservative) absolutely on goddamn fire.

Maybe I'm just a philistine - this is the first Hegel I've read, aside from the first third of *Philosophy of Right*, which similarly seemed to me perfectly comprehensible but derivative (it's just Locke! Or, at least, that third was.) So maybe I'm missing the context, or whatever. But I would summarize much of the *core* of the content as repeating Kant's "Idea for Universal History," with all the racist elements of Kant's thought (there, I think, incidental, here less plausibly so) foregrounded. Providence has decreed that man should come to a social adulthood by progressively understanding his condition better through his own efforts; except here any statement about the supposedly diachronic aspects of this thoughts is hopelessly abstract, what we get in practice are claims about geography - these people are just always more advanced than these people are just always more advanced than these people, and so on. I don't like the game of "criticize the crusty old historical figure for being cancellable by our lights;" if you want something that accords with contemporary norms there's plenty of contemporary authors to read, but there I think you want to be able to say "yeah this guy believed such-and-such follies of his time, but he's worth reading because of his insight or bold proposition that _______________" and I'm just not seeing the blank getting filled there.

Also: the first thing (thesis, if you will) you get told is that Hegel believed in the formula "thesis, antithesis, synthesis," and the second thing (antithesis, if you will) you get told about Hegel is "he never said that, that's just something that later glosses made up." The thing that jumped out at me reading this (synthesis?) is that thesis-antithesis-synthesis is just all over the whole thing, at least as a "writing move" (like Zizek's use of dirty jokes.)

Two stars rather than one because maybe I'm missing something, and because it's at least of interest as an historical document.

[Lauren · Rating 4 out of 5]

huh?

[Anthony Buckley · Rating 5 out of 5]

I am pursuing, with some fortitude, a policy of reading some difficult books, starting with Hegel. This particular volume was collated by students from Hegel’s lectures on history. Hegel seems to think that history consists of God’s developing self-understanding. I have read enough Marx and Feuerbach, however, to be aware that Hegel is susceptible to the following criticism. God’s developing self-understanding consists largely of a developing human self-understanding. It is an argument that is difficult to get around. In short, is not the concept of God, as used here, merely redundant?

Hegel starts by claiming that there are three approaches to history, "Original History", "Reflective History" and his own topic, "Philosophical History". He claims that nature, both physical and psychic, is permeated with Reason or thought. The essence of psychic nature or “Spirit” (human thought about nature = divine self-consciousness) is, however, Freedom: “All the properties of Spirit exist only through Freedom. All are but means of attaining Freedom; all seek and produce this and this alone.”

In self-consciousness, Spirit knows itself, and indeed, world history itself may be considered to be Spirit trying to attain knowledge of its own nature which is Freedom. In earlier periods of history and in other geographical places, Freedom did not become fully self-conscious. Hegel thinks that Oriental peoples (he may be thinking of the Ottomans)know that only the one (the despot) is free. The Ancient Greeks knew only that some were free - they had slaves for example. Only with German Christianity (Luther) was there a discovery that all people were free, and even here, it took many centuries for this truth to be manifested in the secular world.

Hegel says that the realization of the self-knowledge of the Spirit comes about through the passions and self-interested actions of human individuals.

Freedom, which for Hegel is the essence of the Spirit, is not, for Hegel, “the caprice of individuals”. Rather, Freedom is enshrined in human institutions, in morality, law, religion, art and, above all, in the constitutional “State” which seems to incorporate all these others.

“A state is then well-constituted and internally vigorous when the private interest of its citizens is one with the common interest of the state and the one finds gratification and realization in the other.” His conception here approaches that of Adam Smith (1786). Like Smith - who speaks of the "invisible hand", presumably God's - he assumes that morality and common welfare arises out of the selfish pursuit of individual passions. “These vast congeries of volitions, interests, and activities constitute the tools and means of the World Spirit for attaining its purpose, bringing it to consciousness, and realizing it.” Hegel uses a simile of suggesting that the state resembles a house. In both contrasting pressures exerted by the different parts come together to create a well-constituted entire building or state.

Not all states, however, are well-constituted. At specific historical moments, when a state is in decline, world-historical individuals (heroes) make their appearance on the world’s stage. Such heroes realize the Spirit’s purpose which follows a higher law than their own individual interests. He thinks here of men such as Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon. These men, pursuing their own ambition, nevertheless align themselves with the purposes of the divine World Spirit and thereby advance the divine purpose.

However, these heroes, like many non-heroic individuals, are often mistreated by history. Hegel describes history as “the slaughter-bench at which the happiness of peoples, the wisdom of states, and the virtue of individuals have been sacrificed.”

Hegel’s philosophical history, therefore, tells of the progress of Spirit towards its own self-consciousness when freedom discovers itself embedded in human institutions. It is, therefore, a strange and rather mystifying tale.

[Yann · Rating 2 out of 5]

J'ai trouvé ce cours assez difficile à lire. Hegel brosse une théorie suivant laquelle l'Histoire aurait un sens et suivrait un but. Il parle d'Esprit, de Raison, qui accomplirait son dessein en se servant des passions, des intérêt et des ambitions de grands hommes, lesquels pourraient être dégagés d'obligation morales du fait de la grandeur des buts qu'ils poursuivent. Il me semble que l'auteur est fasciné par la réussite du monde occidental et cherche à l'expliquer en prenant de la hauteur. Mais ce faisant, bien qu'il invoque en permanence la Raison, ses démonstrations paraissent un peu lâches, et il appuie des paradoxes violents par du mépris à l'encontre des anciens et de la flatterie à l'égard des contemporains qui n'incitent pas vraiment à la bienveillance, mais rendent plutôt suspicieux. Cette façon de mépriser la vertu et de ne considérer que l’intérêt est embarrassante, et est difficile a admettre de bon cœur.

[Erik Graff · Rating 3 out of 5]

I read this book alongside Hegel's Philosophy of Right which had been assigned for Dave Schweickart's Social and Political Philosophy course taught at Loyola University Chicago during the second semester of 1980/1. Published posthumously and based on notes, Lectures on the Philosophy of History is not among Hegel's better works. It does, however, serve as a quick refresher.

[Zach · Rating 3 out of 5]

His ideas are pretty important.

But what an absolute ballache to read.

So 3 stars.

[Blaine · Rating 5 out of 5]

Look mom, I'm doing it! I'm understanding Hegel!

Three aspects of this text really appealed to me.

(1) Hegel is a proto-cyberneticist, and the immanent critique contains within it the systems theory dictum that "the purpose of a system is what it does."

(2) Hegel's notion of the world-historical individual is self-help. Since reason is inherent in every man as such, to find the spirit within yourself you only to know yourself as you actually are, fully and without shame, and to pursue your interests self-consciously. Anyone can change the world! caveat: to know oneself it is also necessary to know the society in which you live; self-consciousness means to be the eyes by which society looks inside itself.

(3) Hegel sets philosophy and history the task of proving that the world has an inherent reason and telos, that this reason is implicit in every historical moment and every actually existing state, and therefore it is eternal and self-producing. Only from its goals can we derive the good as such. This he reasonably calls God, and claims to have proved His existence! And he insists that God, thereby identified with reason, must be knowable in His full nature to man. It follows that God is precisely that which Hegel as proved to exist: the intrinsic purpose of every existing thing. But reading the Bible or taking communion or singing the hymns bears only an accidental relationship to this God; these are at best contingent features of His existence (as is any actually existing object); can that really be said to be worship? From the point of view of philosophy, no proposition can be derived from the existence of God that could not also be derived from the nature of things as they actually exist (since this is in essence identical with God). If I'm right about this, then by proving the existence of God we have effected his evaporation from philosophy and from life.

I listened to some of this book by way of this audiobook: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VwN7o... . I recommend it for two reasons: (a) the reader splits the difference between reading from the page and speechifying, which really suits the material and clarifies the pragmatic purposes of Hegel's weirdo terminology, and (b) you are forced to move through the text at a brisk pace and take in each sentence as part of the whole. Jared, you predicted this, and you were right! It's a danger to read Hegel too slowly.

[J S · Rating 4 out of 5]

Yooo I finally understand the 20th century, very cool thank you Hegel

(Seriously though, the introduction by Hartman was absolutely incredible - don't think I would have been able to digest the book without Hartman's distinction between the right-Hegelianism of the book's content and the left-Hegelianism of it's form)

[Ibn Cereno]

I wasn't planning to read any more Hegel than what I managed to muddle through in college (namely some dozens of pages of the Phenomenology), but a friend of mine handed me his copy of this book, and I suppose he expects to discuss it with me.

[Caroline Loftus · Rating 3 out of 5]

3 stars was the most dialectical score I could give. Hegel’s idea of history is both lucid/exciting and conservative priestcraft

[Riley · Rating 4 out of 5]

A great introductory writing to Hegels thought and demonstrates how his view of history is entwined with his metaphysics.

[J.D. Steens · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is a nearly 100 page introduction to Hegel's "The Philosophy of History." In this introduction, Hegel traces the development of freedom (self-determination)through history, from its beginnings in inorganic matter, through the earliest life forms, and then to humanity (the rest of Hegel's "Philosophy of History" deals with the geographic development of freedom). God determines but is not Himself determined. Freedom is God's nature. God's freedom manifests itself in the material world and that world abides by God's laws that are rational (hence, the title of this book/introduction). History is the progressive unfolding of rationality, from the laws of nature in the inorganic world to its highest expression in humans where freedom becomes conscious of itself and humans unite with their divine essence that was implicit all along. This is God's plan for the world and his plan for humans. Time (history) is the linear unfolding of God's plan that becomes ever more rational, universal (law-like), conscious, and self-determined. The end state of freedom's development is rational humanity and human institutions (the state and its laws and culture) that act in accord with universal, rational principles. In the Hegelian formulation, individual subjectivity has become transformed. Subjectivity and objectivity become one, and humans become united with their divine essence.

It is interesting to speculate whether Hegel was divining God's plan for the world or whether he was unwittingly describing the natural (i.e., no divine agent) unfolding of freedom in our corner of the cosmos. Matter moves freely until it meets and interacts with other matter. At the beginning of life, matter takes on new characteristics that perpetuate freedom. Matter becomes life that preserves its freedom ("self-determination") by adjusting its actions to fit what the environment requires and, in doing so, this allows life to perpetuate itself through time (individual survival and reproduction). Life now follows a new cosmic path. Life, seeking to survive and reproduce, meets other life forms and, through a Hegelian-like dialectical process, this confrontation forces the evolution of species and freedom's capacity that is seen in mental components that increasingly allow for freedom of choice about how to respond to the challenges of the environment. This development culminates (thus far) in humans. In this alternative perspective regarding the evolution of freedom, Hegel's God recedes into the deep background, if not from the cosmos all together, and natural processes take its place. Freedom has emerged from its embedded place in matter to its transcendent place in human consciousness that can think in law-like, universal terms that are free of time and place.

Hegel did not write this introduction or the Philosophy of History himself. His words were recorded by students and compiled in this book. There is therefore room for interpretation in what Hegel said exactly and how his thoughts were captured. In this version, Hartman writes not only a good introduction, but also includes alternative text from other translations that aid in understanding Hegel's thoughts. Hartman relies primarily on Hegel's son's (Karl's) 1840 translation and relies only minimally on the "pioneer" Sibree translation of the "Philosophy of History" that includes this introduction (1899). Even with this uncertainty about Hegel's actual words and thoughts, his prose at times truly soars. Hegel begins with a divine premise and develops a philosophy that pulls the world's history into a unified system that centers on the development and full expression of freedom. This is why his introduction and his larger work is not a history per se, but a philosophy of history. Whether one agrees with him, Hegel is a first-class thinker who challenges more familiar ways of viewing the world and our place in it.

[James Henderson · Rating 3 out of 5]

I read this in an alumni course as part of the Basic Program of Liberal Education at the University of Chicago. In the introduction to his lectures, Hegel lays down the principles and aims which underlie his philosophy of history, and provides an outline of the philosophy of history itself. he discusses what it means to say "reason governs history". And he discusses the idea of freedom in both the political sense and the individual's self-knowledge. He deals with the importance (for him and his philosophy) of religion and comments that "the task of philosophical world history is to discover the continuity within this movement."(p 56)
The comprehensive and voluminous survey of world history which followed the introduction in the original lectures is of less interest to students of Hegel's thought than the introduction, and is therefore not included in this volume. Nevertheless this is a worthwhile test to begin a study of Hegel's approach and note the impact he has had on subsequent philosophical thought.

[Alice · Rating 4 out of 5]

Every time I finish reading one of the philosophers for class, I am reminded about how glad I am that I decided to take German 56.

In this essay, Hegel approaches the topic of history and how history is reason. I love being able to compare his views on human progress and his visions of the future with Kant's, Mendelssohn's, Fichte's. It is so interesting to see how each philosopher builds off the predecessor and makes something new.

I never knew there could be so many ways to envision the world and explain it.

Hegel was obviously a very very smart man.

[Seth · Rating 2 out of 5]

This is a difficult read primarily because it was taken from Hegel's lecture notes. I found the first fifty pages the most valuable in this small monograph. It might be beneficial to read Hegel with tertiary source, although be careful because there are so many different kinds of Hegelians writing about Hegel.

[Paul · Rating 3 out of 5]

A interesting overview of Hegel's Philosophy of History as well as the additional translation of the introduction of Hegel's Philosophy of history. However, one could spend time on reading Hegel's actual book Philosophy of History which already includes much of what the author translated.

[David · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a really good place to start for those new to Hegel.

[Danny · Rating 3 out of 5]

Hegel is confusing and wrong, but probably worth slogging through.

[Nell · Rating 2 out of 5]

i would more consider myself a young hegelian. this presents itself more as theology than philosophy.

[Christie Gribschaw · Rating 2 out of 5]

Ehh didn't really do anything for me, I'm not a fan of Hegel

[VII · Rating 4 out of 5]

This turned out to be much better than I imagined it would be, though the fact that I attended a seminar taught by a professor who really likes Hegel (Thanasas, who also translated this book in Greek) probably helped, as he was willing to argue that some of the most controversial claims made by Hegel, like that history ends with the German nation of his time are just myths and actually incompatible with his philosophy. I have to admit that it was worth a read. I am sorry Arthur.

Hegel is trying to show that history is moving towards a very specific end: the realization (by humans) and the actualization of political freedom. And this is identical. If someone realizes that she is free, then she cannot act not free anymore (which actually, surprisingly, makes sense if you think about it; think what happens when you “don't” make a choice). This goal is supposedly proved by philosophical arguments that are not covered in this book, but it is also proved by examining history closely if someone knows how and where to look. The whole enterprise is supposed to be empirical and needs no presuppositions. I still don't see things that way but I can at least recognize a valid attempt.

He starts by distinguishing three ways of doing history. The original way in which the historian simply reports things that he sees or hears, the reflective history in which the historian tries to see history as a whole, by comparing cultures through space and time, and the philosophical history, Hegel's one. His way tries to see the flow of history and realizes that is governed by Reason and moves towards political freedom.

This happens through Spirit. History is the path of the Spirit towards understanding its own essence which is freedom. Spirit is opposed to matter or to nature in general and it is something that is expressed by the actions of the humans. Without humans there is no spirit and without spirit there are no humans, just animals (I am actually not entirely sure about this but it makes sense to me). (This concept of having something that both is influenced and influences the whole or that already exists before happening by determining what is going to happen, seems central to Hegel and to me it seems that it is exactly what allows him to say that he is not contradicting himself but engages in dialectics. But it's also quite interesting as a case of what logic and our thinking allows to do.)

Humans don't need to realize this goal in order to promote it. They act for their own passions but the end result is the maximization of freedom, sometimes, like in the case of Julius Caesar, even if they seek the opposite of freedom. It's also not some straight line and we shouldn't focus on individual events or actions but see the tendency, the movement of history. We also can't really predict the movement more than that. Hegel is actually adamant about the goal of the philosopher: she can never tell us what we should because she always arrives too late. She can only explain what happened.

These actions tend to create different kinds of ethos, which are basically equivalent to the states. They are a collection of practices, usually expressed by religion, art and philosophy of each culture and both guide the individuals but, again, are also formed by the individuals. The more agreement there is about those, the more powerful the state is, but eventually disagreement will appear and will weaken a state, leading to its fall.

If we examine history then, we see that at first, in the ancient Far East, only one person was free, the despot, in Ancient Greece and Rome few people were free (think of the slaves), while in his modern Germany “everyone” (of course he only counts the men) was free. This also corresponds to political governments, with Hegel thinking that freedom is higher in constitutional monarchy. For Hegel since there can never be consensus and someone will always be left out, mediation through government and constitution is needed. Also, for him, something like anarchy, like the natural condition that Hobbes describes, is not freedom; that's simply living according to raw instincts and passions. Justice and ethos are integral parts of freedom.

He also writes some racist things about how these people who got colonized lacked spirit, but let's just say that he was a victim of the ethos of his time.

[Bernard English · Rating 3 out of 5]

The criticism I've heard leveled against Hegel most often is that he spins out fantastic theories while ignoring the real world.  That is sort of true as far as his "metaphysics" of history goes. But what's so frustrating is in many places he in fact does insist on an empirical approach: "History itself must be taken as it is;  we have to proceed historically, empirically" rather than practicing "a priori historical fiction." As a specific example he discredits the idea of the noble savage: "The assumption (of the noble savage) is one of those nebulous  images which theory produces, an idea which necessarily flows from that theory and to which it ascribes real existence without sufficient historical justification." In light of his obvious sensitivity to historical evidence, I suppose it is possible some of his baseless insights into God's ways may just be a way of bringing in God's good name to satisfy the censors especially considering that according to the translator Hegel actually lectured to public officials.

Also, Hegel does not just treat the individual as a cipher which is a common misconception about him. Speaking of individuals, he writes that "They are particular individuals; they have their special needs, instincts, and interests. They have their own particular desires and volition, their own insight and conviction, or at least their own attitude and opinion, once the aspirations to reflect, understand, and reason have been awakened." That's a pretty banal observation but some deny that Hegel recognized even this much of individuality which is plainly not true as he makes similar statements elsewhere.

One can certainly pick out some shocking statements about the state in this short work of his, but it's not always clear Hegel deified the state quite as crassly as some think. For example, "the state does not exist for the citizen; on the contrary, one could say that the state is the end and they are the means." But he quickly follows up with "but the means-end relation is not fitting here. For the state is not the abstract confronting the citizen; they are parts of it, like members of an organic body, where no member is end and none is means." Or take his claim that "the state is the divine Idea as it exists on earth." Yet, this is tempered by Hegel's insistence that the "people is primarily a spiritual individual." Linking the state with morality may upset the sensibilities of many libertarians, but it is true that there was a big drop in homicides with the rise of national governments (even accounting for wars) as Steven Pinker has demonstrated. And to rephrase Shakespeare, "the law makes cowards of us all." In particular, the vulgar charge that Hegel (The Royal Prussian Court Philosopher, as some have dubbed him) did not even think Prussia was the pinnacle of human achievement. The editor points out that Hegel saw in America "the land of the future."

It would seem that Hegel is still read not just because of his influence over modern thought, but because all his talk of freedom is inspired--whether it has any other merit or not (I think it does). He discusses the role of freedom and consciousness throughout. Here is one sample: "World history, then, represents the phases in the development of the principle whose content is the consciousness of freedom." Even when Hegel may well be wrong, the stress on freedom and its consciousness is what can keep a reader interested: "However, these two nations [India and China], it must be said, completely lack the essential consciousness of the concept of freedom. . . . The freedom is lacking through which alone the substantial determinations of Reason become moral conviction." The aim of the Chinese sage and Indian renunciations are not "affirmative moral freedom."

[Medhat ullah · Rating 5 out of 5]

Reason in History offers a paradigmatically sophisticated disquisition on the unfolding of human history as a rational process, imbued with a dialectical progression that transcends mere contingency and linearity. In this dense manuscript, Hegel, employing the immanent logic of the Absolute, orchestrates a grandiose and systemic interpretation of history as the progressive realization of freedom. Through his intellectual odyssey, he seeks to disabuse the spectator of historical narratives anchored in arbitrary sequences of events, positing instead a coherent teleological development of the World Spirit.At the core of Hegel’s argument, one finds the assertion that history is not simply the accumulation of isolated events or the accidental interplay of individual wills, but rather the realization of a universal spirit which emerges through a dialectical synthesis of opposites. Hegel’s assertion of the historical necessity of events should not be mistaken for deterministic fatalism; instead, it reveals the process whereby Geist (Spirit) actualizes itself through a series of contradictions and reconciliations.The very notion of “reason” as applied to historical processes is not merely a conceptual abstraction or an epiphenomenal ideal but emerges as an ontological force, shaping human actions, institutions, and ideologies. Through his dialectical method, Hegel contends that each stage of history contains within itself the seed of its own negation, thereby propelling forward the grand narrative of human freedom. In this vision, freedom is not an inherent, pre-existing state, but rather a dynamic, unfolding achievement – a progressive realization mediated through statecraft, legal systems, and cultural institutions.

The historical process, according to Hegel, is not merely a process of being but is intricately intertwined with becoming, where each moment of historical unfolding contains within it the internal necessity of transition. Thus, for Hegel, history's unfolding is a complex interplay between subjective human actions and the impersonal, objective forces of rationality embedded within historical institutions and structures.Hegel’s position is further complicated by the problematic and audacious claim that reason is inherent to the state, wherein he implicitly proclaims that the state is the highest realization of ethical life. In this context, the state acts not as an external constraint upon individual freedom but as the very arena within which individual freedom can be actualized. This leads to a vexing and counterintuitive understanding of political life: while the state subordinates individuals to a collective ethical will, it simultaneously enables their true autonomy within its rational framework. Hegelian dialectics thus casts the state as both the site of liberation and potential alienation, rendering his philosophy inherently paradoxical.The more Hegel's examination unravels, the more it invites scrutiny into the relationship between subjective freedom and objective necessity. This is particularly evident in his portrayal of historical figures such as Napoleon, whose historical agency, though deeply intertwined with the Weltgeist, serves as a manifestation of the dialectical movement of history rather than a personal triumph. Napoleon becomes not merely a conqueror but a vehicle for the realization of the World Spirit. In Hegel's eyes, individuals like Napoleon are not autonomous creators of history but rather agents through which reason works itself out, rendering the human subject both autonomous and yet inexorably enmeshed in the historical process.

[Luke Umar-Khitab · Rating 5 out of 5]

I started reading this book on top of a mountain in the Yukon. Hegel, for better or worse, has always been the philosopher that's intimidated me the most when it comes to actually reading them. All of my favourite professors agree that he's pretty much the greatest thinker that's ever lived. I've been skirting around reading him for some time- always making excuses that I wasn't smart enough to start, because there was so much else I needed to read first.
I talked to Thom about my indecision, and his advice to me was to make a decision I could live with. Sometimes the only way to do that is start driving and see what sticks. So, when I was in the Yukon, I couldn't think of a more metaphorical place to start reading Hegel than the mountain summit (or as close as we could get to it before a curtain of rain appeared in the distance).
I have spent the past month reading Hegel in 2-3 hour spans in the afternoon. What's most absurd about reading Hegel is that 2-3 hours of reading usually amounts to about five pages of the book. My friend Rose called me a generous reader for this, and I think that this is exactly what anyone reading Hegel needs to be: generous. You really need to devote yourself to thinking about what he's saying.
Any of my thoughts on the actual content of this book don't really need to be on goodreads. I mostly write these so I can remember how I felt towards a book at the time that I read it. The generosity towards Hegel will be repaid in full to any philosopher that wants to understand the Philosophy of History and where it's all going.
I'm very glad I read this, at the very least so i can say things like Spirit is the Idea in time that achieves self-consciousness through the process of actualizing its potentiality, only for this actuality to be constantly transfigured and changed into a more purified form of itself as it edges closer to its essence, the concept of freedom, throughout world history.

It's hilarious to me that this is a coherent sentence. We getting more free because that's what we are, we're becoming more of ourselves. The Hegel journey continues with a guidebook to this work that my GOAT Sally recommended to me, and her word is my gospel.