Jacques Le Goff is a prominent figure in the tradition of French medieval scholarship, profoundly influenced by the Annales school, notably, Bloch, Febvre, and Braudel, and by the ethnographers and anthropologists Mauss, Dumézil, and Lévi-Strauss. In building his argument for "another Middle Ages" ( un autre moyen âge ), Le Goff documents the emergence of the collective mentalité from many sources with scholarship both imaginative and exact.
A prolific medievalist of international renown, Le Goff is sometimes considered the principal heir and continuator of the movement known as Annales School (École des Annales), founded by his intellectual mentor Marc Bloch. Le Goff succeeded Fernand Braudel in 1972 at the head of the École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) and was succeeded by François Furet in 1977. Along with Pierre Nora, he was one of the leading figure of New History (Nouvelle histoire) in the 1970s.
Since then, he has dedicated himself to studies on the historical anthropology of Western Europe during medieval times. He is well-known for contesting the very name of "Middle Ages" and its chronology, highlighting achievements of this period and variations inside it, in particular by attracting attention to the Renaissance of the 12th century.
Forgive me, padre, but this historical work I just read, it has sinned against history: it wasn't really historical.
Frankly, had I been looking to improve my knowledge of history per se, I would've walked away much more confused than otherwise. While extremely spectacular and engrossing, this was more focused on anthropology, on emotional and perceptional stuff rather than on hard data. This work was more of an anthropological review (though not exactly that, even) than anything else.
We get a front seat on beauty and philosophy and perception and feelings and innovations and melancholy and culture and other whatnot. While it's all very engrossing and top notch, it's not factological and does nothing for the reader to develop an unbiased view of what happened in the Moyen Age really.
时间的解读 教会时间和商人时间的斗争,是《试谈另一个中世纪》中时间对抗的主线。这种时间观念的冲突发源于一种“道德、宗教关系进行思考的人所具有的世界观”的冲突,后来才形成一种经济上的冲突,因为商人在中世纪并不如人们所说的那样普遍为人歧视:“教会很早就保护并优待商人,但是在长时间内教会曾深深怀疑商人行为一些主要侧面的合法性。”教会时间是一种神性的时间,这类时间只属于上帝,由上帝主宰,因此它被放置在永恒中,无法计量。勒高夫在书中运用了一则史料非常有力的说明了商人们盈利的尴尬局面:“问题:商人们可以因同一桩生意让无法立即付款者比立即付款者向自己支付更多钱吗?有论据的回答为:不,因为这样以来他就会出售时间,并因出售不属于自己的东西而犯下高利贷的罪过”这样的论断不仅攻击了牟利行为,更使整个商业资本主义的合理性受到了质疑—摧毁了信贷发展的所有可能。同样受到质疑的是教育,即能够出售知识吗?圣伯纳德带着他惯有的激烈曾提醒过这一点,知识也是上帝的。所以在这里,资本人力领域的世俗化的整个过程,人类活动的一些基础本身和一些框架都受到质疑:即劳动的时间、知识与经济生产的产出。但是,金钱作为一种社会机制逐渐使时间经济化,时间的经济化在某些程度上也是时间的世俗化:神学上的时间是属于上帝的,是无法出售的。金钱对于消费的时间是一种推迟的作用,即目前的货物和劳动,在将来可以用钱换取。这种作用完全依赖于社会对钱的信赖基础—金钱不是天然有效,它必须获得承认。这就决定了,金钱必须拥有将来,它是人们经营将来的工具,“只要金钱依旧有效,它是以往的一面镜子,因为其价值表达含有对已做工作或者已用金钱所换货物的某种量值。”也就是说,金钱“从两方面打开时间视野,返回以往和面对将来。”所以金钱是一种借助时间的交易,它的运作需要获得时间上的合法性。显然,教会在运作中做出了让步,承认了商人行为的合理性,社会经济的发展无法阻止神性时间的世俗化,这就产生了两个方面的变化:一方面,教会再也无法维持宗教时间的神圣地位,它不得不通过忏悔实践和教理建设的改进来寻求对商人活动的合法性解释。教会不仅减缓了谴责高利贷者的力度,而且宽容了一些世俗的时间要求。“事实上,时间长短的命令,禁欲以及礼拜天休息不再被严格规定,相反地,考虑到职业的需要,只好根据精神而非文字,以劝告的形式予以解释”。另一方面,基督徒商人们只能代之以妥协的方式或者赎罪的方式来将拯救时间与生意时间汇集在个人和集体的生活之中。在灵魂救赎层面,商人们自然也接受教会的指导与指示,为了弥补罪过,他们从获利中抽取一定份额献给上帝,以资助慈善事业。“如果商人依旧是基督徒,他就只能从心理扭曲与实用伎俩为代价,来避免其经商过程中所利用的时间与它在本质问题上已然对初期资本主义做出了让步,甚至为它自己在新秩序中赢得了一席之地。”这些让步同样适用于其他劳动职业,甚至出现了对妓女进行合法化的辩解,尽管此后迅速被“平反”。这都反映了一个现象—金钱的胜利:金钱借助一种流动的商业时间,成功的冲击了一种相对“静止不变”的时间。 《试谈另一个中世纪》深受欧洲三等级社会观念的影响,将中世纪分为三个等级社会,并且论述了与之对应的三种不同时间观念。教会时间、贵族时间和劳动者时间。上文中的“金钱的胜利”依然有很长的一段路要走,中世纪的时间本质上是教会时间,是因为中世纪的时间完全是由钟声来划分时段的,对钟声和钟的把握,是教会时间和商人时间、钟表时间和自然时间等矛盾焦点。 钟表是人类社会的另一个重要机制(还有一个是金钱),即通过它,人类的同时性、政治性、社会化和规律性才得以更大范围的实现。从本质上来说,钟表的行走反应的不是时间的流逝,它恰恰是一种人类用规律事物衡量不规律事物的计量单位。在《地中海与菲利普二世时代的地中海世界》中,布罗代尔就揭示地中海的四季有着不同的长度,即时间以不同速率流动。我们从城市和农村两个角度来看,就可以发现钟表在其中的不言而喻的重要性。 在中世纪,祈祷时间的管理依靠钟声,城镇的工作时间也依靠钟声。在《14世纪“危机”中的劳动的时间:从中世纪时间向现代时间的过渡》一章中,勒高夫描写了以下几个现象:呢绒业资产者建造工作钟管理工人、诸多法令禁止人民伤害钟塔和敲钟人、1370年查理五世将宫廷时间推广到全国,这些都提醒我们要重新反思钟声的象征意义。首先钟表是一种管理权的物化,在人类社会具有无比的权力,“它们是一种人类之网的协调及组织的社会事实。”从这里我们不难看出,钟表赋予了时间一种更强的政治性和组织性,“这种新时间主要产生于一个作为提供工作者的资产阶级的需要,他们面对危机关心更好地计量劳动时间及他们盈利的时间,很快新时间就被那些更强的势力攫取。作为统治工具,对于那些大领主和君主们来说它是消遣之物,但也是权力象征。” 在中世纪的大部分地区(主要是农村地区),人们的时间依然从属于自然时间,但其中有着与自然时间分离的趋势,6世纪的教会时间的日课时间就规定为七次,分别为黎明(Matins or Lauds)、日出(Hora Prima)、上午(Hora Tertia)、正午(Hora Sexta or Meridies)、下午(Hora Nona)、日落(Vespers)和傍晚(Compline),接下来的好些个世纪里,这种办法一直在沿用。此时的“钟”还只能称作为“铃”,除了鸣响以外,并无计时功能。在《神曲》���,但丁所描绘的佛罗伦萨旧城的钟声(大约11到12世纪)教堂里的钟声就属于此类。直到14世纪初,这种情况才得以改观,主要得益于平衡机械钟的发明,它“不仅最终实现了计时仪器的机械化,而且也可以说实现了时间本身的机械化”机械钟才为人们带来了确切意义上的“小时”,均等的“小时”概念取代了以往的比较模糊的“时辰”,也替代了以往比较清楚的“日”。 “日”的概念严格的受到了教士和封建领主阶级的管控,其普通大众的“日”的观念被宗教上的狂欢节和服役交税的时日不断唤醒,在这个意义上,贵族的时间、教会的时间和普通民众的时间观得到了新的统一,重大的节日成为了遍及全年的日期的判断点。而对于农民本身来说,他们的时间观念或许是更原始的、封闭的、停滞的。在这个依靠土地生存的社会里,中世纪的时间最直接的体现依旧是一种农业时间,即自然时间。中世纪的农村地区活动的单调造成了一种无聊的时间煎熬,等待和容忍是农民的时间主题,“他们的时间观念随着自然界的规律进行波动,由此带来的是农民时间的鲜明对比:昼夜和季节、冷与暖、光与暗、工作与休息、生与死等针锋相对的二元论。” 从某些角度来看,空间的隔离恰恰阻止了同时性的集体经历,也同时保护人们各自的时间,使各自的时间免受同时性的侵入。换句话说,人们活动的空间范围和人们的时间感有着密切的关系,这说明了时间具有空间性。年鉴学者勒华拉杜里(Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie)受到勒高夫的影响,考察了中世纪蒙塔尤地区的农民的时间观、空间感和自然观。在《蒙塔尤》一书中,提及了勒高夫涉及教会时间和商人时间观念对立的论文,他在书中认为,在日常生活中,教士的时间对农民影响不大。教会的时间仅仅在举行葬礼和弥撒中才有时间意义,而蒙塔尤的村民并不依靠教堂的钟声来准确地区分时间段,这是一种时间观念不强的文明。蒙塔尤人用来表示空间概念的工具竟然是自己的身体和家,通常情况下,他们用手和臂来感知身边的、地理的和社会文化的空间,当感知对象的长度超过了身体时,作为身体的附属物,家就成为了丈量工具。这里看出,用身体和家作为丈量工具,反映了一种不大关心空间的心态。这样心态引发的空间感以家为中心,外扩至村子,而这已经是最大的范围了,因为再大范围的事物对他们的日常生活影响甚微。这样的“空间孤岛”带来的结果是一种“时间孤岛”,勒华拉杜里认为蒙塔尤人生活在既与过去又与将来没有联系的“时间孤岛”上。他直接引用当地农民的话“除了当今这个世纪,没有别的世纪”,这也是为了说明蒙塔尤人时间孤悬的状态。这引发了我大胆思考钟声声音传播的范围带来的问题:钟声传达的是一种“时间”讯息,那么钟声传播的范围是不是会促进“时间孤岛”的形成?这样的“时间孤岛”是不是也会促进新的“空间孤岛”(更准确来说是“空间小岛”,比如呢绒业工人为了听到钟声而聚集到钟声下居住)?虽然史料不足,但或许其结论不明自白。
Estou dando continuidade nas postagens anteriores, com o trabalho de pesquisa do período medieval, sigo com o belíssimo material realizado por Jacques Le Goff; "Para uma outra idade média - tempo, trabalho e cultura no ocidente". Firme no propósito em fazer leituras de livros no qual obtive contato de modo parcial (xerox de capítulos) no período acadêmico, e também possibilitando novos conhecimentos de materiais técnicos disponíveis no mercado editorial.
Eu tenho apenas este livro lido de forma completa, infelizmente não tenho como realizar comparações com outras obras de Le Goff, vejo que alguns leitores possuíram algum nível de descontentamento. Sigo de forma explícita em minha "timeline" nas considerações estritamente deste livro, sem o recurso ao comparativo bibliográfico do autor.
O livro consiste abrangência aos aspectos intelectuais na idade média, deixando o leitor, por vezes, um tanto por conta de referências, de nomes respeitados em outros campos de atuações que não fossem estritamente por historiadores. Acredito que os comportamentos de frustrações dos leitores, digam-se de passagem, atitude um tanto purista demais, foram devidos aos recursos socioantropológicos que encontram-se em sua maior parte.
Não tive desconforto em "esbarrar" na leitura com nomes eternizados como; Marcel Mauss, Lucien Febvre, lévi-strauss e etc... O que permanece é um trabalho com profundidade intelectual, contendo amplitude nas questões do medievo. O que foi observado é o "nicho" no desenvolvimento, quando o subtítulo diz; "...no ocidente", temos na realidade uma linha de pesquisa exercida nos países centrais europeus, com ênfase em território francês, evidenciando sua forte influência na historiografia medieval francesa.
O que podemos observar como exceção no livro, até mesmo de forma concisa, fica por conta do tema "O domínio do ritual simbólico da vassalagem" com ênfase em "As referências em outras sociedades", vemos o esforço de Le Goff no método comparativo das sociedades extra-europeias. Apresentando ao leitor um maior interesse aos africanistas, também discorrendo sobre o feudalismo japonês e objetos simbólicos no período clássico do feudo chinês.
Vejo como uma obra densa, apesar de sua amplitude nos temas pertinentes ao período medieval, o leitor deve ter consciência que este livro não é material de apenas uma única leitura. Acho interessante realizar um retorno nas questões e manter um direcionamento conjunto com algum material de apoio, acho que completei com êxito esta fase, estou pronto em obter outras experiências nas obras de Le Goff.
I was mainly interested in the first part of the book: Time and labor. The chapter describes the sculpturing of time and the growing importance of labor. An interesting discovery for me was that labor was considered, by the church, as a forbidden activity. With the rise of the cities and the growing importance of the merchant class, the church could no longer keep its feet dry and, especially from the 13th century labor became a normal activity. After reading The good ancestor from Roman Krznaric, I wonder how the world would have looked like now, if the church would have been more resistant in banning labor. Maybe we still would have an omnipotent church, a smaller, homo ludens type of population but an earth that was still virgin. There might come a day when we beg the church on our knees to bring back these good old days.
The book is split into four sections: Time and Labor, Labor and Value Systems, High Culture and Popular Culture, and Toward a Historical Anthropology. Le Goff explores the evolution of time perception from sun-based labor to church-influenced timekeeping. He delves into the changing attitudes toward labor and merchants, the influence of universities rooted in theology, and the emergence of public authorities in Renaissance universities. Additionally, he examines the development of high and popular culture, as well as symbolic rituals, like handshakes and greetings, rooted in medieval Christianity. These rituals symbolize familial relationships and hierarchical structures, tying back to religious and social contexts.
Sumamente buen libro, teórico, pero con detalles historicistas. Una muestra perfecta de los elementos necesarios para hacer teoría de la historia acerca de elementos específicos: la importancia de los rituales y los símbolos en la historia del hombre.
So far, I like this book very much. Philosophical/sociological...but history nonetheless. Much food for thought, especially re: the modern notion of time.