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The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction
The Qur'an represents both Islam's historical point of origin and its scriptural foundation, inaugurating a new religion and, ultimately, a new civilisation. Yet the text itself can be difficult to understand, and the scholarship devoted to it is often highly technical. This comprehensive introduction to the basic methods and current state of historical-critical Qur'anic scholarship covers all of the field's major questions, such as: Where and when did the Qur'an emerge? How do Qur'anic surahs function as literary compositions? How do the Qur'an's main themes and ideas relate to and transform earlier Jewish and Christian traditions?
Reading this book will give you the tools needed to work with and understand this vital but complex text.
Reading this book will give you the tools needed to work with and understand this vital but complex text.
256 pages, Paperback
Published September 8, 2017
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August 10, 2021
دومین کتابیه که در معرفی قرآن میخونم (قبل از این درآمدی بر تاریخ قرآن رو خوندم) و به نظرم این با اون هیچ قابل مقایسه نبود. این خیلی بهروزتر و خیلی مسلطتر بود و موضوعات مختلفی رو بررسی کرد که آموزندهترینشون برای من ترتیب سورهها و پیگیری تحول مضامین قرآن طی روند سورههای مکی به سمت سورههای مدنی بود. برای همین چند فصل هم که شده میارزه کتاب رو بخونید، چون حرفهای تازهای داره که یا حاصل تحقیقات خود نویسنده است یا برگرفته از تحقیقات قرآنپژوههای متعدده.
May 31, 2020
I have read a number of introductions to the Qur’an in the past, each one dealing with various aspects of the Muslim holy book, whether it is Mateen Elass’ “Understanding the Koran” (which focuses on Qur’anic parallels with Biblical stories and areas where Qur’anic teaching intersects with biblical teaching), or Michael Cook’s The Koran: A Short Introduction (which focuses on the textual history of the Qur’an as a text, and its reception within the Muslim community). So what makes Nicolai Sinai’s book different from all of these other book on the Qur’an?
Perhaps the main difference has to do with emphasis: Sinai approaches the Qur’an from the perspective of one who engages in historical criticism of religious texts. He adopts many of the standard methods of the historical-critical method and displays how a historical critic may approach the Qur’an and what conclusions one may arrive at. The results can sometimes be surprising for those who are used to a more traditional or confessional approach to studying the Qur’an, although it may be less surprising if one is familiar with the history and methods of the historical-critical enterprise.
Sinai’s book is divided into three parts. “Part One: Background,” comprises chapters 1-3, “Part Two: Method” comprises chapters 4-6, and “Part Three: A Diachronic Survey of the Qur’anic Proclamations“ comprises chapters 7-8. These chapters will be summarized in turn.
Chapter 1, “Some Basic Features of the Qur’an,” gives basic facts about the Qur’an, such as how many surahs, ayat and words it contains, what sort of literary features one would expect while reading it, the formulaic nature of many Qur’anic passages (where Sinai draws from Bannister’s work in Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur’an), and a basic history of the text of the Qur’an. Sinai points to how textual variants emerged from differences in diacritics found in variant readings of the ‘Uthmanic rasm, and how more significant variants than these existed in non-‘Uthmanic codices such as those of Ibn Mas’ud.
Chapter 2, “Muhammad and the Qur’an,” discusses the traditional account of the Qur’an’s emergence, and what possible flaws that traditional account may have. Sinai suggests that stories such as Muhammad’s initial reception of revelation at the cave of Hira may have been based on biblical topoi and was created with the apologetic intention of casting Muhammad as a new Moses. Sinai also surveys the earliest non-Muslim accounts of Muhammad, and finds some interesting divergences with the traditional account (such as accounts where Muhammad is leading the Arab armies against the Byzantines in 634, even though he is supposed to have already died by then).
Chapter 3, “The Qur’anic Milieu” looks at the socio-religious background of pre-Islamic Arabia, to investigate what sort of socio-religious environment the Qur’an was composed in. Sinai (following Patricia Crone) notes that many of the agricultural references found in the Qur’an do not fit the desert environment of Mecca, but fit better with the ecosystem of the Fertile Crescent. He even notes that 37.137-138 implies a locale close to the region of the Dead Sea. Sinai also notes that the Qur’an (including the Meccan parts) implies that its audience has a knowledge of Jewish and Christian lore that would be highly unusual in a Meccan environment. Sinai suggests that this means that there was a stronger Jewish and Christian presence in the Hijaz than is traditionally held, although the hypothesis that the Qur’an’s true origins lie elsewhere than the Hijaz is not ruled out.
Chapter 4, “Literary Coherence and Secondary Revision,” describes how the different surahs were thematically arranged together. Sinai notes that most surahs seem to flit back and forth between topics in a haphazard manner. Despite this, however, some surahs do seem to have been edited in such a way that they display a logical progression in the topics they treat. He uses Surat Maryam (19) and Surat as-Saffat (37) as examples, showing how the various prophetic narratives are arranged in such a way that they buttress the Quran’s polemics against the Pagan associators. Most controversially, Sinai brings up the possibility that some Qur’anic verses were written after Muhammad’s death. He cites a number of possible candidates, then lists 3:7 as the most likely to be post-Muhammad in provenance.
Chapter 5, “Inner-Qur’anic Chronology,” explores the topic of chronological order of surahs. Sinai makes the argument that a general trend can be discerned wherein (apart from some outliers) verse-units become progressively longer, such that Meccan surahs are comprised of short verses, while Medinan surahs are comprised of longer ones. Apart from this, other features such as the appearance of certain formulaic patterns and a trend towards decreasing poetic quality (and increase prosaicness) can be used to determine the chronological order of any given surah.
Chapter 6, “Intertextuality,” looks at the Jewish and Christian writings from which many Qur’anic stories originate. Sinai looks at a number of narratives in the Qur’an, and notes how many of the details found in them parallel similar stories found in rabbinic sources such as the Aggadic midrashim, as well as Christian pseudepigrapha such as the Cave of Treasures and the Life of Adam and Eve. Besides this, Sinai also looks at Qur’anic intra-textuality, where later surahs refer back at earlier ones and the presume that the audience has access to them.
Chapter 7, “The Meccan Surahs,” is a thematic survey of the surahs revealed in the Meccan period. Sinai notes that the Meccan surahs display a strong emphasis on eschatology, where lack of urgency in preparing for Judgment Day is equated with outright denial of it. He notes that this has its roots in Christian preaching about Judgment Day, such as is found in the sermons of St. Ephrem the Syrian. Also, taking cues from Walid Saleh, he notes the increasing pessimism of the Qur’anic author in hoping that the Meccans would accept Islam, gradually culminating in the exodus from Mecca to Medina.
Chapter 8, “The Medinan Surahs,” is a thematic survey of the surahs revealed in the Medinan period. Emphasized here are the increasing tendency towards militancy (where God’s direct judgment is replaced with God’s use of the Muslims as agents of judgment), and an increasing distance from the Jews and Christians. Sinai suggests that the legal prescriptions found in the Medinan surahs are both an imitation of Jewish traditions as well as an eschewal of them (such as the rejection of the Sabbath, and the “Jerusalemizing” of Mecca). Of special interest is the increasing role accorded to Muhammad, which Sinai suggests is patterned after the role of the Christian bishop.
Looking at the various themes covered by Sinai’s Introduction, one can see that he channels many of the classic studies of the Qur’an by such pioneers as Abraham Geiger, Theodor Nöldeke, Andrew Rippin, Jon Wansbrough and Fred Donner. At the same time, he draws on newer studies and research, and brings the reader up to speed on the current state of Qur’anic studies. The footnotes and bibliography are excellent sources for knowing where to go for further information, as well as what the most up to date sources are for any given topic.
That being said, many of the conclusions that Sinai arrives at are largely dependent on whether one accepts the Historical-Critical method or not. If one begins with the presupposition that the Qur’an can be studied like any other historical work, then many of Sinai’s conclusions are quite plausible, or even inevitable. If one is skeptical of the Historical-Critical method, however, then the plausibility of many of those conclusions becomes less believable. Nevertheless, various facts that are highlighted in this book do deserve serious reflection, and if one doesn’t accept the author’s conclusions, then it is perhaps necessary to find better models to explain them.
Overall, this book is highly recommended for anyone who is involved in some way or another in Qur’anic studies as an introduction to the critical questions surrounding the Qur’an. Being an introduction however, one should not end with this book, but use it as a springboard for more in-depth study.
Perhaps the main difference has to do with emphasis: Sinai approaches the Qur’an from the perspective of one who engages in historical criticism of religious texts. He adopts many of the standard methods of the historical-critical method and displays how a historical critic may approach the Qur’an and what conclusions one may arrive at. The results can sometimes be surprising for those who are used to a more traditional or confessional approach to studying the Qur’an, although it may be less surprising if one is familiar with the history and methods of the historical-critical enterprise.
Sinai’s book is divided into three parts. “Part One: Background,” comprises chapters 1-3, “Part Two: Method” comprises chapters 4-6, and “Part Three: A Diachronic Survey of the Qur’anic Proclamations“ comprises chapters 7-8. These chapters will be summarized in turn.
Chapter 1, “Some Basic Features of the Qur’an,” gives basic facts about the Qur’an, such as how many surahs, ayat and words it contains, what sort of literary features one would expect while reading it, the formulaic nature of many Qur’anic passages (where Sinai draws from Bannister’s work in Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur’an), and a basic history of the text of the Qur’an. Sinai points to how textual variants emerged from differences in diacritics found in variant readings of the ‘Uthmanic rasm, and how more significant variants than these existed in non-‘Uthmanic codices such as those of Ibn Mas’ud.
Chapter 2, “Muhammad and the Qur’an,” discusses the traditional account of the Qur’an’s emergence, and what possible flaws that traditional account may have. Sinai suggests that stories such as Muhammad’s initial reception of revelation at the cave of Hira may have been based on biblical topoi and was created with the apologetic intention of casting Muhammad as a new Moses. Sinai also surveys the earliest non-Muslim accounts of Muhammad, and finds some interesting divergences with the traditional account (such as accounts where Muhammad is leading the Arab armies against the Byzantines in 634, even though he is supposed to have already died by then).
Chapter 3, “The Qur’anic Milieu” looks at the socio-religious background of pre-Islamic Arabia, to investigate what sort of socio-religious environment the Qur’an was composed in. Sinai (following Patricia Crone) notes that many of the agricultural references found in the Qur’an do not fit the desert environment of Mecca, but fit better with the ecosystem of the Fertile Crescent. He even notes that 37.137-138 implies a locale close to the region of the Dead Sea. Sinai also notes that the Qur’an (including the Meccan parts) implies that its audience has a knowledge of Jewish and Christian lore that would be highly unusual in a Meccan environment. Sinai suggests that this means that there was a stronger Jewish and Christian presence in the Hijaz than is traditionally held, although the hypothesis that the Qur’an’s true origins lie elsewhere than the Hijaz is not ruled out.
Chapter 4, “Literary Coherence and Secondary Revision,” describes how the different surahs were thematically arranged together. Sinai notes that most surahs seem to flit back and forth between topics in a haphazard manner. Despite this, however, some surahs do seem to have been edited in such a way that they display a logical progression in the topics they treat. He uses Surat Maryam (19) and Surat as-Saffat (37) as examples, showing how the various prophetic narratives are arranged in such a way that they buttress the Quran’s polemics against the Pagan associators. Most controversially, Sinai brings up the possibility that some Qur’anic verses were written after Muhammad’s death. He cites a number of possible candidates, then lists 3:7 as the most likely to be post-Muhammad in provenance.
Chapter 5, “Inner-Qur’anic Chronology,” explores the topic of chronological order of surahs. Sinai makes the argument that a general trend can be discerned wherein (apart from some outliers) verse-units become progressively longer, such that Meccan surahs are comprised of short verses, while Medinan surahs are comprised of longer ones. Apart from this, other features such as the appearance of certain formulaic patterns and a trend towards decreasing poetic quality (and increase prosaicness) can be used to determine the chronological order of any given surah.
Chapter 6, “Intertextuality,” looks at the Jewish and Christian writings from which many Qur’anic stories originate. Sinai looks at a number of narratives in the Qur’an, and notes how many of the details found in them parallel similar stories found in rabbinic sources such as the Aggadic midrashim, as well as Christian pseudepigrapha such as the Cave of Treasures and the Life of Adam and Eve. Besides this, Sinai also looks at Qur’anic intra-textuality, where later surahs refer back at earlier ones and the presume that the audience has access to them.
Chapter 7, “The Meccan Surahs,” is a thematic survey of the surahs revealed in the Meccan period. Sinai notes that the Meccan surahs display a strong emphasis on eschatology, where lack of urgency in preparing for Judgment Day is equated with outright denial of it. He notes that this has its roots in Christian preaching about Judgment Day, such as is found in the sermons of St. Ephrem the Syrian. Also, taking cues from Walid Saleh, he notes the increasing pessimism of the Qur’anic author in hoping that the Meccans would accept Islam, gradually culminating in the exodus from Mecca to Medina.
Chapter 8, “The Medinan Surahs,” is a thematic survey of the surahs revealed in the Medinan period. Emphasized here are the increasing tendency towards militancy (where God’s direct judgment is replaced with God’s use of the Muslims as agents of judgment), and an increasing distance from the Jews and Christians. Sinai suggests that the legal prescriptions found in the Medinan surahs are both an imitation of Jewish traditions as well as an eschewal of them (such as the rejection of the Sabbath, and the “Jerusalemizing” of Mecca). Of special interest is the increasing role accorded to Muhammad, which Sinai suggests is patterned after the role of the Christian bishop.
Looking at the various themes covered by Sinai’s Introduction, one can see that he channels many of the classic studies of the Qur’an by such pioneers as Abraham Geiger, Theodor Nöldeke, Andrew Rippin, Jon Wansbrough and Fred Donner. At the same time, he draws on newer studies and research, and brings the reader up to speed on the current state of Qur’anic studies. The footnotes and bibliography are excellent sources for knowing where to go for further information, as well as what the most up to date sources are for any given topic.
That being said, many of the conclusions that Sinai arrives at are largely dependent on whether one accepts the Historical-Critical method or not. If one begins with the presupposition that the Qur’an can be studied like any other historical work, then many of Sinai’s conclusions are quite plausible, or even inevitable. If one is skeptical of the Historical-Critical method, however, then the plausibility of many of those conclusions becomes less believable. Nevertheless, various facts that are highlighted in this book do deserve serious reflection, and if one doesn’t accept the author’s conclusions, then it is perhaps necessary to find better models to explain them.
Overall, this book is highly recommended for anyone who is involved in some way or another in Qur’anic studies as an introduction to the critical questions surrounding the Qur’an. Being an introduction however, one should not end with this book, but use it as a springboard for more in-depth study.
July 25, 2022
هر آدمی یه جور یاد بچگیش میکنه. واسه بعضیا یه جایی هست که خاطرات خوشی ازش دارن. دریایی، کوهی، جنگلی چیزی. یا یه خونه که سالهای شیرین کودکیشون رو توش گذروندن.
من اما قشنگترین لحظات بچگیم به فکر کردن به یه سری متن و آدم مربوط به سالهای دور گذشت. همونقدر که برای بعضیا فکر کردن به دنیای هری پاتر لذتبخش بود، برای منِ ۱۳-۱۴ساله فکر کردن به پیامبران، خصوصاً محمد، و خیالبافی دربارهٔ اونا، لذتبخشترین کار بود.
چندروز اخیر دلم خواست یکم یاد بچگیم کنم. نشستم این کتاب رو خوندم و نمیدونید چقدر ازش لذت بردم. نویسنده، نیکلای ساینای تو این کتاب کاملاً بیطرفانه و انتقادی متن قرآن رو به عنوان یک متن ادبی تاریخی بررسی کرده. کتاب نه تلاشی در جهت گوگولی نشون دادن اسلام کرده، نه از اون طرف سعی کرده برای سر و صدا کردن ادعاهای عجیبغریب بیاساس مطرح کنه. (مث این که محمد وجود نداشت یا محل شکلگیری اسلام بیرون از شبهجزیره بود و غیره)
تو بخش اول کتاب یه سری ویژگیهای ادبی قرآن معرفی میشن. بعدش اسناد تاریخی رو بررسی میکنه که نشون میدن محمد وجود داشته و بدنهٔ اصلی تمام سورههای قرآن مربوط به زمان زندگی محمدن. البته اضافه شدن تعداد کمی آیه (مثلاً آیهٔ محکمات و متشابهات) رو منتفی نمیدونه.
بعد فضایی که قرآن در اون نوشته شده رو با توجه به متون یهودی-مسیحی اون دوره بررسی میکنه.
تو بخش دوم ساختار ادبی درونی سورههای قرآن رو بررسی میکنه. بعدش سعی میکنه ترتیب زمانی سورهها رو بررسی کنه. برای این کار تحت تأثیر کار بازرگان در کتاب سیر تحول قرآن، از طول متوسط آیات سورهها استفاده میکنه. ضمناً روند شکلگیری یه سری مفاهیم رو هم نشون میده. بعدش میره سراغ ارتباط قرآن با بایبل و با متون یهودی-مسیحی اون زمان. نشون میده که قرآن چطور داستانهای این متون رو از فیلتر الهیاتی خودش رد کرده.
بخش آخر روند شکلگیری مفاهیم رو بررسی کرده. در سورههای مکی اولین مفهوم آخرته، بعدش میره سراغ عذابهای الهی، نشانههای طبیعی و اولین صحبتها از توحید. تو بررسی سورههای مدنی اول شکلگیری مفهوم جنگ دینی در قرآن رو با توجه به متون مسیحی اون دوره بررسی کرده. بعدش شکلگیری هویت مستقل اسلامی که با جدا کردن مناسک دینی مسلمین از یهود، تعیین قوانین مستقلاً اسلامی، تقدیس مکه، و نسبت دادن نقش پیامبرانه به محمد انجام شدن.
من اما قشنگترین لحظات بچگیم به فکر کردن به یه سری متن و آدم مربوط به سالهای دور گذشت. همونقدر که برای بعضیا فکر کردن به دنیای هری پاتر لذتبخش بود، برای منِ ۱۳-۱۴ساله فکر کردن به پیامبران، خصوصاً محمد، و خیالبافی دربارهٔ اونا، لذتبخشترین کار بود.
چندروز اخیر دلم خواست یکم یاد بچگیم کنم. نشستم این کتاب رو خوندم و نمیدونید چقدر ازش لذت بردم. نویسنده، نیکلای ساینای تو این کتاب کاملاً بیطرفانه و انتقادی متن قرآن رو به عنوان یک متن ادبی تاریخی بررسی کرده. کتاب نه تلاشی در جهت گوگولی نشون دادن اسلام کرده، نه از اون طرف سعی کرده برای سر و صدا کردن ادعاهای عجیبغریب بیاساس مطرح کنه. (مث این که محمد وجود نداشت یا محل شکلگیری اسلام بیرون از شبهجزیره بود و غیره)
تو بخش اول کتاب یه سری ویژگیهای ادبی قرآن معرفی میشن. بعدش اسناد تاریخی رو بررسی میکنه که نشون میدن محمد وجود داشته و بدنهٔ اصلی تمام سورههای قرآن مربوط به زمان زندگی محمدن. البته اضافه شدن تعداد کمی آیه (مثلاً آیهٔ محکمات و متشابهات) رو منتفی نمیدونه.
بعد فضایی که قرآن در اون نوشته شده رو با توجه به متون یهودی-مسیحی اون دوره بررسی میکنه.
تو بخش دوم ساختار ادبی درونی سورههای قرآن رو بررسی میکنه. بعدش سعی میکنه ترتیب زمانی سورهها رو بررسی کنه. برای این کار تحت تأثیر کار بازرگان در کتاب سیر تحول قرآن، از طول متوسط آیات سورهها استفاده میکنه. ضمناً روند شکلگیری یه سری مفاهیم رو هم نشون میده. بعدش میره سراغ ارتباط قرآن با بایبل و با متون یهودی-مسیحی اون زمان. نشون میده که قرآن چطور داستانهای این متون رو از فیلتر الهیاتی خودش رد کرده.
بخش آخر روند شکلگیری مفاهیم رو بررسی کرده. در سورههای مکی اولین مفهوم آخرته، بعدش میره سراغ عذابهای الهی، نشانههای طبیعی و اولین صحبتها از توحید. تو بررسی سورههای مدنی اول شکلگیری مفهوم جنگ دینی در قرآن رو با توجه به متون مسیحی اون دوره بررسی کرده. بعدش شکلگیری هویت مستقل اسلامی که با جدا کردن مناسک دینی مسلمین از یهود، تعیین قوانین مستقلاً اسلامی، تقدیس مکه، و نسبت دادن نقش پیامبرانه به محمد انجام شدن.
May 21, 2025
Well written and enlightening. I did feel, however, at certain times the author begs the question and produces claims that are not satisfactorily backed by the evidence provided.
July 30, 2025
I would rate this book 4 stars if I were rating it purely on the scholarship. I think some of the statements are a little strong, but in a book more directed towards the public I can forgive setting aside nuance for accessibility. Though I think some datum could have used some caveats or further justification, as while it wasn’t purely circular I felt the criteria for dating Surah felt almost circular. Much of it is “the later Surahs are longer, that’s how we know earlier Surah’s that are longer are actually later insertions” but maybe earlier Surah’s are just longer? Don’t get me wrong, other justification exist that make the argument compelling I just felt it was presented a bit too strongly but maybe I am just stupid.
As for the writing itself, I enjoyed it. I do feel much of the language is unnecessarily “academic.” That may not even be the correct word, I just mean it sometimes feels like he looked at a sentence and thought it needed to be upscaled and whipped out his thesaurus. I’m not saying he didn’t know the words, and he used them all correctly as far as I’m aware, I just mean there were (in my view) clearly more suitable words that would be more accessible and, in my view, better writing regardless of audience. I’m saying it felt like a flex maybe? This is a weird critique, I’m aware, it’s just something I picked up on.
As for the writing itself, I enjoyed it. I do feel much of the language is unnecessarily “academic.” That may not even be the correct word, I just mean it sometimes feels like he looked at a sentence and thought it needed to be upscaled and whipped out his thesaurus. I’m not saying he didn’t know the words, and he used them all correctly as far as I’m aware, I just mean there were (in my view) clearly more suitable words that would be more accessible and, in my view, better writing regardless of audience. I’m saying it felt like a flex maybe? This is a weird critique, I’m aware, it’s just something I picked up on.
January 20, 2025
Super fascinating introduction to historical critical analysis of the Quran. There were sections that were significantly less interesting than others, but that’s what I get for reading an academic book for fun
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December 12, 2024
As a Muslim, a very interesting read still. RTC
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