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Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires
The prophet Muhammad and the early Islamic community radically redefined the concept of time that they had inherited from earlier religions' beliefs and practices. This new temporal system, based on a lunar calendar and era, was complex and required sophistication and accuracy. From the ninth to the sixteenth century, it was the Muslim astronomers of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires, and not those of Europe, who were responsible for the major advances in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. Stephen Blake's fascinating study compares the Islamic concept of time, and its historical and cultural significance, across these three great empires. Each empire, while mindful of earlier models, created a new temporal system, fashioning a new solar calendar and era and a new round of rituals and ceremonies from the cultural resources at hand. The hysteria that accompanied the end of the first Islamic millennium in 1591 also created a unique collection of apocalyptic prophets and movements in each empire. This book contributes not only to our understanding of the Muslim temporal system, but also to our appreciation of the influence of Islamic science on the Western world.
223 pages, Paperback
First published December 31, 2012
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July 31, 2025
Interesting that it is amid the millenarian hysteria and its resulting search for messiahs that Islam loses its dominance in astronomy and science first, then Empire.
Notes
Islamic day begins at sundown. 5 prayers based on shadow-lengths, so the astronomic handbook zij had shadow-lengths of different cities - Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad etc. The noon prayer is an exact moment, not a range, so timekeeping became sophisticated - many time specialist roles: muwaqqit, miqati, munajjim (astronomical timekeeper).
From Gnomon (vertical bar casting a shadow) to sundial to water-clock (clepsydra).
The prophet says - the jews have every seventh day to get together, so let us do the same. But to differentiate from Christians and Jews, they choose Friday, but make it ordinary working day except with noon assembly, Yaum al-Jama. Unlike Christian/Jewish week from Babylonian/Egyptian belief of seven planets ruling a day each, they name it first day (Sunday), second day, etc.
Original Arabs had lunar calendar, with 4 months of peace, and 8 months of war. In 412 they begin to intercalate between muharram and zu al-hijja (month of pilgrimage) to keep it from regressing. Muhammad calls it pagan and bans intercalation (nasi). Coincidentally (?), the nasi was the Jewish spiritual leader responsible for determining first day of month etc.
At first there is only Id-al-Fitr (end of Ramdan fast), and Id-al-Qurban (sacrifice animal signifying Abraham sacrifice of Ishmael). Then they add Muhamad birthday (but choose his death day). Then Ashura (first 10 days of Muharram, for death of Imam Husain).
Second Caliph Umar, establishes Hijra Era in 638, choosing departure of Muhammad from Mecca in 622 as start point.
The munajjim has 3 tools: an astrolabe (disc and pointer for positions of planets, time of day), an almanac (series of tables with positions), and a dust-board (for mathematical calculations. Based on Ptolemy, whose work ‘Mathematical Compilation’ was translated as Almagest (the Greatest). Also, Brahmagupta’s translation Zij al Sindhind.
Seljuk ruler wants complete revision of Ptolemy, but that would take 30 years, so he settles on new solar calendar and era. Omar Khayyam in charge. Tarikh-i Jalali. Ulugh Beg, grandson of Timur, constructs most advanced observatory at Samarkand, himself a highly talented mathematician and astronomer, his Zij-i Sultani influenced Copernicus and Brahe.
Each year, the taqvim, almanac, is extracted from the zij, 24 pages with 2 for each month, with diagram of initial position of 7 bodies, followed by forecasts and major astro events, then days of week of various eras (Julian, Hijra, Jalali), and historical-events, festivals, and ephemeris (positions of 7 bodies).
Safavid founder Shah Ismail I calls himself Mahdi, reincarnation of Ali (first of the 12 Imams of the shiites who reject the first 3 caliphs), unites the Turkish Qizilbash (men of the sword) and Persian Tajik (men of the pen).
Mughal dynasty was called Timurid at the time. Akbar’s new ranked military-administrative mansabdari system did not need conversion, unlike Safavids and Ottomans - took Turanis (Turkish-speaking Sunnis from Central Asia), Iranis (Persian-speaking Shiites from Safavid), Afghans (Sunnis from E.India), Sheikhzadas (Indian-born Muslims), Rajputs and Marathas. Tries sulh-i-kull, lasting reconciliation, first with Hindus. Zoroastrians influence him the most. He is named adjudicator of religious disputes (between shias/sunnis, and among 4 sunnis). Brings Tauhid-i Illahi, divine monotheism, sufi-like imperial order.
With mountainous Safavids between Ottomans and Mughals, the main interactions were Ottoman-Safavid (mostly hostile, they both drew their military from the same sects), and Safavid-Mughal (neutral). But Ottomans controlled Mecca, and had a complex relationship with Safavid and Mughal, with practical issues like Indian overcrowding.
Ottomans were militarily superior, but Safavids led cultural sphere. Arabic is language of religion but Persian is language of culture, science, and of Mughal courts. Mughals were economic powerhouse. Materials went east-west, and precious metals went west-east. Indian moneychangers dominate the bazaars of Persia.
Safavids can’t fully ignore the solar Zoroastrian calendar (especially with people retaining proud memory of Achaemenid empire etc). Each zoroastrian day has its own name, there are 30, no divisions into weeks. The sfvds drop this. Persia has 2 extreme seasons of hot and cold, so population migrates to mountains in summer and plains in winter. Zoroastrian day is sunrise, but sfvds make it sundown.
Mughals take from the ~30 indic solar and lunisolar calendars - dividing day into 8 pahars, each with 60 gharis (duration changes with season to reflect unequal day-night). Hijra month, but also the Indic tithi (1/30th of moon’s path on ecliptic), dividing month into 2 15-day moon-cycles. Babur surprised by India’s 3 seasons: 4 months of summer, 4 of rain, 4 of winter.
Taj Mahal architect Ustad was an experienced astrologer, with full command of the Almagest. Humayun was obsessed with consulting the munajjim.
Once Kepler/Copernicus/Galileo made their advances, Indic astronomers/astrologers could never catch up and absorb it, though they had access to all the material.
Ottomans divide day into 2 12-hour halves (sunrise to sundown, and viceversa). Islamic days and weeks, but Julian months. Solar calendar restricted to fiscal/accounting offices. Unlike the Safavid interest in large inaccurate but impressive looking clock towers, the Ottomans were interested in accurate mechanical timepieces from Europe.
Id-i Qurban doesn’t seem to exist in Iran before Shah Abbas, who makes it a public ceremony, with the most perfect camel from imperial stable paraded for a week, blessed in Mecca and then sent to Isfahan, fed by locals, until on 10th day of Zu al-Hijja, the Shah himself kills it. He gets the head, the rest distributed - giving it the imprint of Ashura (elsewhere, Id-i Qurban is a cycle of private sacrifice).
Fifty years after Ashura was originally like Yom Kippur, fasting, it is transformed when Umayyad ruler dies and Shiites revolt under Husain (grandson of prophet) who is killed. Ashura becomes period of mourning.
Last of the 4 Safavid rituals, Nau Ruz (new day) is solar and secular. Solomon regains throne, in legend, fell on summer solstice. Achaemeneid makes it spring equinox. Regresses after Islamic calendar, until Omar Khayyam returns it to 21 March. It is the dynasty’s claim to pre-Islamic Iranian tradition of divine kingship (new day of new month of new year).
Holi, new moon of March, is a festival of reversal, where men and women mix freely, and the lower classes attack the upper. Mughals different from other Islamic dynasties in celebrating Hindu festivals.
For the mughals, Dusshera/Diwali is beginning of campaigning season, the rains have stopped, the crops have been harvested, perfect time for war.
Aurangazeb bans holi (destructive), and Nau Ruz (stupid).
Imperial birthday (lunar) celebrated by weighing self against precious objects and distributing (appropriation of an Indic ritual formalized by Guptas). Aurangzeb discontinues the weighings and then the related festivities.
Ottomans redefine islamic custom of circumcision from domestic ritual into large public festival, to fill the void created by elimination of sultanic weddings (after Mehmet the conqueror dies, no other dynasty is deemed worthy of marrying, so imperial harem becomes just slave concubines). But more likely reason is that the sultan retreats from public view, and limits appearances to 2 events: marriage of princess, and circumcision of prince. Jewish circumcision marks womb to family/faith; Mughal marks harem to school; Ottoman marks adolescence to full maturity.
Taxes had to be collected after annual harvest, so Abd al Malik, 3rd Umayyad decided on solar era just for administrative parts - Kharaji (taxation) Era with 365-day Zoroastrian calendar begins. Kharaji and Hijra get out of sync, so periodically an adjustment is made, Izdilaq (arabic - sliding) or Tahvil (persian - changing), where 1 year is eliminated in KE after every 32 (32,34…64,66…96,98…). Safavids and Mughals abandon it for a real solar era, but the Ottomans keep it.
Pre-Islamic Iran numbered years by rulers (5th year of Darius etc). Umar, second caliph, brings this to an end when he defeats the Sassanids in 641. Lunar regression then calls for Omar’s Jalali solar era 1079AD. Mongols bring the 12-year Animal Era
In India, the Vikramaditya Era was in popular use (58BC when Vikramaditya defeats the Sakas). Saka Era in many states, 78 CE. None of the muslim rulers are able to begin an era, until Akbar starts Fasli or Harvest era 1556, but then take the 12-year era from Iran. Then introduces controversial Divine Era Tarikh i Ilahi in 1584, thanks to polymath Mir Fathullah Shirazi, one of many Persian polymaths who flocked to India.
Aurangzeb, receiving the account of his first decade, Alamgirnama, decides glorifying his achievements is antithetical to a pious life, bans all writing of official histories.
Ottoman solar tradition is Christian, called Rumi (Roman), but era is not christian anno domini but Roman, only a bookkeeping device whose sequence is tied to Hijra needing periodic adjustment. Expenditures followed lunar, but incomes (taxes) were solar, so constant deficit needing raised taxies, devaluing currencies, borrowing etc. Janissaries keep revolting on account of this failure to pay. 1840 Tanzimat era of reform sees Roman era become the standard, until adoption of Gregorian Era by Ataturk 1926.
First millennium of Hijra Era ends 1591. Grand Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 1583. Apocalyptic expectation gives rise to unique mix of prophets, movements. Beginning at year 0, a grand conjunction of all planets at zero point of ecliptic, a great year was 360,000 years (Babylon), or 4.32 Million (Indic).
Abu Mashar - First cosmic destruction was water, next would be fire. Jupiter orbit 12 years, Saturn 30 years, regular conjunction 20 years but special conjunction (against a zodiac triplicity) 240 years, Grand Conjunction (all conjunctions cycle through zodiac and return to Aries) every 960 years. Previous Grand Conjunction 3100BC was Great Deluge and Indic Kali Yuga. He is main source for European astronomers/astrologers, including Roger Bacon.
1591 would spark the reappearance of Mahdi (Guided One) and Mujaddid (Renewer). Fazallah Astrabadi, founder of Hurufi Sufi, dreams he is Mahdi, tries to convert Timur, executed by Timur’s son Miran Shah. His follower Mahmud Pasikhani calls himself Mahdi and Mujaddid, rebels against taqlid (adherence to tradition) and for tajdid (renewal). No day of judgment, creation is eternal (transmigration of soul). 64000 year cycle, 4 * 16000, with each having an 8000 year lunar epoch and 8000 year solar, switching at 1000 year intervals from perfect Arab messenger to perfect Persian preacher. Stamped out by Shah Abbas (made paranoid by offer of support by Akbar).
In India, 2 Sufi orders created by Mahdis, get support from Afghan border tribes. Sheikh Mustafa Gujarati’s cult in Gujarat, gets influence in Mughal court. Sharif Amuli suggests Akbar is the Mahdi. As direct descendents of Timur, the Mughals all take epithet Lord of the Conjunction (Timur’s title).
Mevlana Isa calls Suleiman the Sahib Zaman (Ismaili equivalent of Mahdi) because of Grand Conjunction, as opposed to Charles V (other candidate for universal sovereign of the apocalypse). The Marble Lion on the Bosporus switches direction (first 1453 from Europe to Asia, signifying fall of Constantinople, then 1526 from Asia to Europe, victory of Suleiman over Habsurgs) in 1533 prophesying disastrous Ottoman defeat.
Notes
Islamic day begins at sundown. 5 prayers based on shadow-lengths, so the astronomic handbook zij had shadow-lengths of different cities - Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad etc. The noon prayer is an exact moment, not a range, so timekeeping became sophisticated - many time specialist roles: muwaqqit, miqati, munajjim (astronomical timekeeper).
From Gnomon (vertical bar casting a shadow) to sundial to water-clock (clepsydra).
The prophet says - the jews have every seventh day to get together, so let us do the same. But to differentiate from Christians and Jews, they choose Friday, but make it ordinary working day except with noon assembly, Yaum al-Jama. Unlike Christian/Jewish week from Babylonian/Egyptian belief of seven planets ruling a day each, they name it first day (Sunday), second day, etc.
Original Arabs had lunar calendar, with 4 months of peace, and 8 months of war. In 412 they begin to intercalate between muharram and zu al-hijja (month of pilgrimage) to keep it from regressing. Muhammad calls it pagan and bans intercalation (nasi). Coincidentally (?), the nasi was the Jewish spiritual leader responsible for determining first day of month etc.
At first there is only Id-al-Fitr (end of Ramdan fast), and Id-al-Qurban (sacrifice animal signifying Abraham sacrifice of Ishmael). Then they add Muhamad birthday (but choose his death day). Then Ashura (first 10 days of Muharram, for death of Imam Husain).
Second Caliph Umar, establishes Hijra Era in 638, choosing departure of Muhammad from Mecca in 622 as start point.
The munajjim has 3 tools: an astrolabe (disc and pointer for positions of planets, time of day), an almanac (series of tables with positions), and a dust-board (for mathematical calculations. Based on Ptolemy, whose work ‘Mathematical Compilation’ was translated as Almagest (the Greatest). Also, Brahmagupta’s translation Zij al Sindhind.
Seljuk ruler wants complete revision of Ptolemy, but that would take 30 years, so he settles on new solar calendar and era. Omar Khayyam in charge. Tarikh-i Jalali. Ulugh Beg, grandson of Timur, constructs most advanced observatory at Samarkand, himself a highly talented mathematician and astronomer, his Zij-i Sultani influenced Copernicus and Brahe.
Each year, the taqvim, almanac, is extracted from the zij, 24 pages with 2 for each month, with diagram of initial position of 7 bodies, followed by forecasts and major astro events, then days of week of various eras (Julian, Hijra, Jalali), and historical-events, festivals, and ephemeris (positions of 7 bodies).
Safavid founder Shah Ismail I calls himself Mahdi, reincarnation of Ali (first of the 12 Imams of the shiites who reject the first 3 caliphs), unites the Turkish Qizilbash (men of the sword) and Persian Tajik (men of the pen).
Mughal dynasty was called Timurid at the time. Akbar’s new ranked military-administrative mansabdari system did not need conversion, unlike Safavids and Ottomans - took Turanis (Turkish-speaking Sunnis from Central Asia), Iranis (Persian-speaking Shiites from Safavid), Afghans (Sunnis from E.India), Sheikhzadas (Indian-born Muslims), Rajputs and Marathas. Tries sulh-i-kull, lasting reconciliation, first with Hindus. Zoroastrians influence him the most. He is named adjudicator of religious disputes (between shias/sunnis, and among 4 sunnis). Brings Tauhid-i Illahi, divine monotheism, sufi-like imperial order.
With mountainous Safavids between Ottomans and Mughals, the main interactions were Ottoman-Safavid (mostly hostile, they both drew their military from the same sects), and Safavid-Mughal (neutral). But Ottomans controlled Mecca, and had a complex relationship with Safavid and Mughal, with practical issues like Indian overcrowding.
Ottomans were militarily superior, but Safavids led cultural sphere. Arabic is language of religion but Persian is language of culture, science, and of Mughal courts. Mughals were economic powerhouse. Materials went east-west, and precious metals went west-east. Indian moneychangers dominate the bazaars of Persia.
Safavids can’t fully ignore the solar Zoroastrian calendar (especially with people retaining proud memory of Achaemenid empire etc). Each zoroastrian day has its own name, there are 30, no divisions into weeks. The sfvds drop this. Persia has 2 extreme seasons of hot and cold, so population migrates to mountains in summer and plains in winter. Zoroastrian day is sunrise, but sfvds make it sundown.
Mughals take from the ~30 indic solar and lunisolar calendars - dividing day into 8 pahars, each with 60 gharis (duration changes with season to reflect unequal day-night). Hijra month, but also the Indic tithi (1/30th of moon’s path on ecliptic), dividing month into 2 15-day moon-cycles. Babur surprised by India’s 3 seasons: 4 months of summer, 4 of rain, 4 of winter.
Taj Mahal architect Ustad was an experienced astrologer, with full command of the Almagest. Humayun was obsessed with consulting the munajjim.
Once Kepler/Copernicus/Galileo made their advances, Indic astronomers/astrologers could never catch up and absorb it, though they had access to all the material.
Ottomans divide day into 2 12-hour halves (sunrise to sundown, and viceversa). Islamic days and weeks, but Julian months. Solar calendar restricted to fiscal/accounting offices. Unlike the Safavid interest in large inaccurate but impressive looking clock towers, the Ottomans were interested in accurate mechanical timepieces from Europe.
Id-i Qurban doesn’t seem to exist in Iran before Shah Abbas, who makes it a public ceremony, with the most perfect camel from imperial stable paraded for a week, blessed in Mecca and then sent to Isfahan, fed by locals, until on 10th day of Zu al-Hijja, the Shah himself kills it. He gets the head, the rest distributed - giving it the imprint of Ashura (elsewhere, Id-i Qurban is a cycle of private sacrifice).
Fifty years after Ashura was originally like Yom Kippur, fasting, it is transformed when Umayyad ruler dies and Shiites revolt under Husain (grandson of prophet) who is killed. Ashura becomes period of mourning.
Last of the 4 Safavid rituals, Nau Ruz (new day) is solar and secular. Solomon regains throne, in legend, fell on summer solstice. Achaemeneid makes it spring equinox. Regresses after Islamic calendar, until Omar Khayyam returns it to 21 March. It is the dynasty’s claim to pre-Islamic Iranian tradition of divine kingship (new day of new month of new year).
Holi, new moon of March, is a festival of reversal, where men and women mix freely, and the lower classes attack the upper. Mughals different from other Islamic dynasties in celebrating Hindu festivals.
For the mughals, Dusshera/Diwali is beginning of campaigning season, the rains have stopped, the crops have been harvested, perfect time for war.
Aurangazeb bans holi (destructive), and Nau Ruz (stupid).
Imperial birthday (lunar) celebrated by weighing self against precious objects and distributing (appropriation of an Indic ritual formalized by Guptas). Aurangzeb discontinues the weighings and then the related festivities.
Ottomans redefine islamic custom of circumcision from domestic ritual into large public festival, to fill the void created by elimination of sultanic weddings (after Mehmet the conqueror dies, no other dynasty is deemed worthy of marrying, so imperial harem becomes just slave concubines). But more likely reason is that the sultan retreats from public view, and limits appearances to 2 events: marriage of princess, and circumcision of prince. Jewish circumcision marks womb to family/faith; Mughal marks harem to school; Ottoman marks adolescence to full maturity.
Taxes had to be collected after annual harvest, so Abd al Malik, 3rd Umayyad decided on solar era just for administrative parts - Kharaji (taxation) Era with 365-day Zoroastrian calendar begins. Kharaji and Hijra get out of sync, so periodically an adjustment is made, Izdilaq (arabic - sliding) or Tahvil (persian - changing), where 1 year is eliminated in KE after every 32 (32,34…64,66…96,98…). Safavids and Mughals abandon it for a real solar era, but the Ottomans keep it.
Pre-Islamic Iran numbered years by rulers (5th year of Darius etc). Umar, second caliph, brings this to an end when he defeats the Sassanids in 641. Lunar regression then calls for Omar’s Jalali solar era 1079AD. Mongols bring the 12-year Animal Era
In India, the Vikramaditya Era was in popular use (58BC when Vikramaditya defeats the Sakas). Saka Era in many states, 78 CE. None of the muslim rulers are able to begin an era, until Akbar starts Fasli or Harvest era 1556, but then take the 12-year era from Iran. Then introduces controversial Divine Era Tarikh i Ilahi in 1584, thanks to polymath Mir Fathullah Shirazi, one of many Persian polymaths who flocked to India.
Aurangzeb, receiving the account of his first decade, Alamgirnama, decides glorifying his achievements is antithetical to a pious life, bans all writing of official histories.
Ottoman solar tradition is Christian, called Rumi (Roman), but era is not christian anno domini but Roman, only a bookkeeping device whose sequence is tied to Hijra needing periodic adjustment. Expenditures followed lunar, but incomes (taxes) were solar, so constant deficit needing raised taxies, devaluing currencies, borrowing etc. Janissaries keep revolting on account of this failure to pay. 1840 Tanzimat era of reform sees Roman era become the standard, until adoption of Gregorian Era by Ataturk 1926.
First millennium of Hijra Era ends 1591. Grand Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 1583. Apocalyptic expectation gives rise to unique mix of prophets, movements. Beginning at year 0, a grand conjunction of all planets at zero point of ecliptic, a great year was 360,000 years (Babylon), or 4.32 Million (Indic).
Abu Mashar - First cosmic destruction was water, next would be fire. Jupiter orbit 12 years, Saturn 30 years, regular conjunction 20 years but special conjunction (against a zodiac triplicity) 240 years, Grand Conjunction (all conjunctions cycle through zodiac and return to Aries) every 960 years. Previous Grand Conjunction 3100BC was Great Deluge and Indic Kali Yuga. He is main source for European astronomers/astrologers, including Roger Bacon.
1591 would spark the reappearance of Mahdi (Guided One) and Mujaddid (Renewer). Fazallah Astrabadi, founder of Hurufi Sufi, dreams he is Mahdi, tries to convert Timur, executed by Timur’s son Miran Shah. His follower Mahmud Pasikhani calls himself Mahdi and Mujaddid, rebels against taqlid (adherence to tradition) and for tajdid (renewal). No day of judgment, creation is eternal (transmigration of soul). 64000 year cycle, 4 * 16000, with each having an 8000 year lunar epoch and 8000 year solar, switching at 1000 year intervals from perfect Arab messenger to perfect Persian preacher. Stamped out by Shah Abbas (made paranoid by offer of support by Akbar).
In India, 2 Sufi orders created by Mahdis, get support from Afghan border tribes. Sheikh Mustafa Gujarati’s cult in Gujarat, gets influence in Mughal court. Sharif Amuli suggests Akbar is the Mahdi. As direct descendents of Timur, the Mughals all take epithet Lord of the Conjunction (Timur’s title).
Mevlana Isa calls Suleiman the Sahib Zaman (Ismaili equivalent of Mahdi) because of Grand Conjunction, as opposed to Charles V (other candidate for universal sovereign of the apocalypse). The Marble Lion on the Bosporus switches direction (first 1453 from Europe to Asia, signifying fall of Constantinople, then 1526 from Asia to Europe, victory of Suleiman over Habsurgs) in 1533 prophesying disastrous Ottoman defeat.
March 9, 2025
Çok zorlandım okurken. Üç büyük erken modern İslam İmparatorluğu karşılaştırması yapılmış ama kullanılan kaynaklar yetersiz. Argüman belirsiz, sürekli tekrar var kitapta bu da konu takibini zorlaştırıyor. Yazar, görevinin ağırlığı altında ezilmiş. Bana göre yazar bu bahsedilen imparatorlukların hiçbirini tam anlamıyla kavrayamamış. Bende uyanan izlenim bu oldu.
February 22, 2016
Full of really fascinating history of how the early so-called "gunpowder empires" marked time. On the flipside, the book seemed cobbled together and could've used a better editor.
Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews