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Islamic Civilization and Muslim Networks
Islam without Europe: Traditions of Reform in Eighteenth-Century Islamic Thought
Replete with a cast of giants in Islamic thought and philosophy, Ahmad S. Dallal's pathbreaking intellectual history of the eighteenth-century Muslim world challenges stale views of this period as one of decline, stagnation, and the engendering of a widespread fundamentalism. Far from being moribund, Dallal argues, the eighteenth century--prior to systematic European encounters--was one of the most fertile eras in Islamic thought.
Across vast Islamic territories, Dallal charts in rich detail not only how intellectuals rethought and reorganized religious knowledge but also the reception and impact of their ideas. From the banks of the Ganges to the shores of the Atlantic, commoners and elites alike embraced the appeals of Muslim thinkers who, while preserving classical styles of learning, advocated for general participation by Muslims in the definition of Islam. Dallal also uncovers the regional origins of most reform projects, showing how ideologies were forged in particular sociopolitical contexts. Reformists' ventures were in large part successful--up until the beginnings of European colonization of the Muslim world. By the nineteenth century, the encounter with Europe changed Islamic discursive culture in significant ways into one that was largely articulated in reaction to the radical challenges of colonialism.
Across vast Islamic territories, Dallal charts in rich detail not only how intellectuals rethought and reorganized religious knowledge but also the reception and impact of their ideas. From the banks of the Ganges to the shores of the Atlantic, commoners and elites alike embraced the appeals of Muslim thinkers who, while preserving classical styles of learning, advocated for general participation by Muslims in the definition of Islam. Dallal also uncovers the regional origins of most reform projects, showing how ideologies were forged in particular sociopolitical contexts. Reformists' ventures were in large part successful--up until the beginnings of European colonization of the Muslim world. By the nineteenth century, the encounter with Europe changed Islamic discursive culture in significant ways into one that was largely articulated in reaction to the radical challenges of colonialism.
440 pages, Hardcover
First published June 3, 2018
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February 6, 2019
Islam Without Europe: Traditions of Reform in 18th Century Islamic Thought by Ahmad Dallal explores various thinkers’ interpretations of Quranic law, specifically the idea of collective itjihad, decentralization of power, and Islamic unity. Dallal opens his book by claiming that Western, specifically European, historiography has discounted these thinkers’ innovation and contribution to Islamic schools of thought. Dallal revisits this idea by systematically reviewing thinkers from all over the Muslim world, everywhere from West Africa to Yemen to the Mughal Empire.
Dallal mainly pushes back against the European idea that the scholars of this time were complacent in agreement with Wahhabism, or that they contributed very little to schools of thought contrary to Wahhabism. He demonstrates that the thinkers, including al – Shakawni from Yemen, Shah Wali Allah from India, ibn Fudi from West Africa, and al – Sanusi from Libya, all disagreed with Wahhabism through direct or indirect means in their writing. Whether through their disregard for taqlid or their dismissal of strict takfir by mudhab, these thinkers proposed a more democratic Islamic thought process. Wali Allah even went as far as to say that itjihad is a collective responsibility, claiming that communal and personal evaluation of Sura and Hadith is the only method to forming a functioning society, which directly conflicts with Wahhabism’s elitist interpretation of Quranic law.
Also in contrast to Wahhabism, these thinkers focused on the needs of Islamic society as a whole, and not just on the creed of individuals. While they had disagreements concerning the implementation and levels of itjihad and taqlid, they largely agreed that practice of Islamic principles is more important than adherence to a specific creed since action builds community. Wahhabism, Dallal argues, cared more for creed and advocated for Bara’a, or dissociation with nonbelievers, a tenant that 18th century thinkers distanced themselves from.
Dallal’s book also indirectly underlines the modernization of the Middle East through these thinkers. Dallal argues that these 18th century reformers were pulling from earlier Islamic traditions of egalitarianism and democratization, but these ideals were also being championed again in the 18th century. Modernization focused on rational thought, individual responsibility, and collective good for the masses. While European modernism rejected religious aspects of this type of thinking, 18th century Islamic scholars instead emphasized these qualities within Islam. As noted above, the scholars advocated for the common people’s right to reason through itjihad without subscribing to specific scholarly arguments. Shah Wali Allah even argued that denying people the right it itjihad is denying God’s gifts bestowed upon every man.
Dallal also stresses the importance of regional thought with transregional networks, another mark of modernity. In line with Shayech’s ideas presented in The Middle East and the Making of the Modern World, Dallal highlights the importance of local traditions. Each scholar built upon already accepted Islamic thought within their region, but also shared their writings with contemporaries in their network, helping spread ideas while still maintaining regional identity. Dallal notes that this regional and transregional tension explains the similarities in thought from Nigeria to India.
Dallal touches on Sufism as well, explaining the departure of 18th century thinkers from the Wahhabi view of Sufism. While Wahhabi thought strictly denies the legitimacy and holiness of Sufism, 18th century scholars simply rejected their monopoly on connection to God. 18th century scholars advocated for every man’s ability and responsibility to itjihad, meaning that Sufi Shayk or Saint intercession was not necessary. Since 18th century reformers also focused on social good, they view Sufist principals of isolation and separatism as antithetical to solving social good problems. This rejection of Sufist power plays into the egalitarian and un-elitist, decentralizing of power narrative the scholars were forming, a return to pure Islam in their minds.
Dallal praises these thinkers throughout his book through circular and iterative writing. While the writing style is consistent with the subject matter, meaning that these scholars’ works cannot be represented with full detail through a chart or graph, the book was at times hard to follow because of lack of sign posting. Also, a map and / or timeline would have made the reading much richer, particularly in the section concerning regional traditions and transregional networks. Visualizing the contemporaries’ connections to space and time would have allowed for more clear engagement with the ideas in the text.
On a personal note, this book brings up many of my former studies of Islam. Perhaps the argument that stood out the most to me was the 18th century thinkers’ insistence on the egalitarian nature of Islam. Under Dr. Stephanie Mulder, a scholar of Islamic art history, I studied early mosque architecture. She was the first to point out to me how egalitarianism is built in to the very fabric of Islam: instead of a stage and a performance as seen in Christian churches then and now, mosque architecture placed every worshiper on the same playing ground, focusing on individuals’ connection to God. Islam is participatory. In this way, I can see Dallal’s insistence that these 18th century scholars were building on a tradition of egalitarianism and decentralized authority. This book contributed to my understanding of Islamic thought’s turn from traditional power structures to democratization of religion, which, as Dallal states, the West often ignores.
Dallal mainly pushes back against the European idea that the scholars of this time were complacent in agreement with Wahhabism, or that they contributed very little to schools of thought contrary to Wahhabism. He demonstrates that the thinkers, including al – Shakawni from Yemen, Shah Wali Allah from India, ibn Fudi from West Africa, and al – Sanusi from Libya, all disagreed with Wahhabism through direct or indirect means in their writing. Whether through their disregard for taqlid or their dismissal of strict takfir by mudhab, these thinkers proposed a more democratic Islamic thought process. Wali Allah even went as far as to say that itjihad is a collective responsibility, claiming that communal and personal evaluation of Sura and Hadith is the only method to forming a functioning society, which directly conflicts with Wahhabism’s elitist interpretation of Quranic law.
Also in contrast to Wahhabism, these thinkers focused on the needs of Islamic society as a whole, and not just on the creed of individuals. While they had disagreements concerning the implementation and levels of itjihad and taqlid, they largely agreed that practice of Islamic principles is more important than adherence to a specific creed since action builds community. Wahhabism, Dallal argues, cared more for creed and advocated for Bara’a, or dissociation with nonbelievers, a tenant that 18th century thinkers distanced themselves from.
Dallal’s book also indirectly underlines the modernization of the Middle East through these thinkers. Dallal argues that these 18th century reformers were pulling from earlier Islamic traditions of egalitarianism and democratization, but these ideals were also being championed again in the 18th century. Modernization focused on rational thought, individual responsibility, and collective good for the masses. While European modernism rejected religious aspects of this type of thinking, 18th century Islamic scholars instead emphasized these qualities within Islam. As noted above, the scholars advocated for the common people’s right to reason through itjihad without subscribing to specific scholarly arguments. Shah Wali Allah even argued that denying people the right it itjihad is denying God’s gifts bestowed upon every man.
Dallal also stresses the importance of regional thought with transregional networks, another mark of modernity. In line with Shayech’s ideas presented in The Middle East and the Making of the Modern World, Dallal highlights the importance of local traditions. Each scholar built upon already accepted Islamic thought within their region, but also shared their writings with contemporaries in their network, helping spread ideas while still maintaining regional identity. Dallal notes that this regional and transregional tension explains the similarities in thought from Nigeria to India.
Dallal touches on Sufism as well, explaining the departure of 18th century thinkers from the Wahhabi view of Sufism. While Wahhabi thought strictly denies the legitimacy and holiness of Sufism, 18th century scholars simply rejected their monopoly on connection to God. 18th century scholars advocated for every man’s ability and responsibility to itjihad, meaning that Sufi Shayk or Saint intercession was not necessary. Since 18th century reformers also focused on social good, they view Sufist principals of isolation and separatism as antithetical to solving social good problems. This rejection of Sufist power plays into the egalitarian and un-elitist, decentralizing of power narrative the scholars were forming, a return to pure Islam in their minds.
Dallal praises these thinkers throughout his book through circular and iterative writing. While the writing style is consistent with the subject matter, meaning that these scholars’ works cannot be represented with full detail through a chart or graph, the book was at times hard to follow because of lack of sign posting. Also, a map and / or timeline would have made the reading much richer, particularly in the section concerning regional traditions and transregional networks. Visualizing the contemporaries’ connections to space and time would have allowed for more clear engagement with the ideas in the text.
On a personal note, this book brings up many of my former studies of Islam. Perhaps the argument that stood out the most to me was the 18th century thinkers’ insistence on the egalitarian nature of Islam. Under Dr. Stephanie Mulder, a scholar of Islamic art history, I studied early mosque architecture. She was the first to point out to me how egalitarianism is built in to the very fabric of Islam: instead of a stage and a performance as seen in Christian churches then and now, mosque architecture placed every worshiper on the same playing ground, focusing on individuals’ connection to God. Islam is participatory. In this way, I can see Dallal’s insistence that these 18th century scholars were building on a tradition of egalitarianism and decentralized authority. This book contributed to my understanding of Islamic thought’s turn from traditional power structures to democratization of religion, which, as Dallal states, the West often ignores.
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