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The Geographical Pivot of History
"A stimulating paper." -The Nation
"The most important general paper that has been communicated to us." -Geographical Journal
"A notable paper ... makes a bold generalisation as to the geographical control of world politics." -Indian Ed.
Halford John Mackinder's 1904 paper "The Geographical Pivot of History" is an attempt to exhibit human history as part of the life of the world organism by showing how the successive invasions of the Asiatic nomads from the steppe-land (the pivot) moulded the settled peoples of Europe. In some measure the strategic advantages of these nomads has been neutralized by the development of mobility upon the ocean. But the steppe-land is about to be covered with a network of railways giving a mobility of military and economic power greater than that of the sea, so that it will continue to be the pivot region of the world's politics.
The strength of Asiatic hordes lay in their mobility, and ceased when they entered the forests and mountains.
The grim determination of European peoples to check these successive hordes and not be crushed into a widespread despotism was the principal reason of European advance and unity during all these ages. Thus the spirit which stimulated the peoples of Europe and made them progress was the healthy and powerful reaction against pressure from the steppe lands of Asia.
The discovery of the New World changed the relations of Europe and Asia. Europe no longer watched in dread for what might come from Asia. She turned her back on Asia and founded new Europes beyond the oceans.
But now the whole world is occupied and well filled with people, save only the vast steppes of Euro-Asia. Europe is fenced in again as she was 400 years ago, and can expand no farther. The land power, the steppes of the Russian Empire and Mongolia, dormant while the oceans were being overrun, will now reassert itself. Railways are to give the steppes mobility and replace the horse and camel. Here there is room for hundreds of millions, who shall derive countless riches from the wealth of fertile plains, boundless forests, and neighboring mountains.
"The Geographical Pivot of History" thus formulated the Heartland Theory. This is often considered as a, if not the, founding moment of geopolitics as a field of study, although Mackinder did not use the term. Whilst the Heartland Theory initially received little attention outside geography, this theory would later exercise some influence on the foreign policies of world powers.
According to Mackinder, the Earth's land surface was divisible into:
The World-Island, comprising the interlinked continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This was the largest, most populous, and richest of all possible land combinations.
The offshore islands, including the British Isles and the islands of Japan.
The outlying islands, including the continents of North America, South America, and Australia.
The Heartland lay at the centre of the world island, stretching from the Volga to the Yangtze and from the Himalayas to the Arctic. Mackinder's Heartland was the area then ruled by the Russian Empire and after that by the Soviet Union. Later, in 1919, Mackinder summarised his theory as:
"Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland;
who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island;
who rules the World-Island commands the world."
Any power which controlled the World-Island would control well over 50% of the world's resources. The Heartland's size and central position made it the key to controlling the World-Island.
"The most important general paper that has been communicated to us." -Geographical Journal
"A notable paper ... makes a bold generalisation as to the geographical control of world politics." -Indian Ed.
Halford John Mackinder's 1904 paper "The Geographical Pivot of History" is an attempt to exhibit human history as part of the life of the world organism by showing how the successive invasions of the Asiatic nomads from the steppe-land (the pivot) moulded the settled peoples of Europe. In some measure the strategic advantages of these nomads has been neutralized by the development of mobility upon the ocean. But the steppe-land is about to be covered with a network of railways giving a mobility of military and economic power greater than that of the sea, so that it will continue to be the pivot region of the world's politics.
The strength of Asiatic hordes lay in their mobility, and ceased when they entered the forests and mountains.
The grim determination of European peoples to check these successive hordes and not be crushed into a widespread despotism was the principal reason of European advance and unity during all these ages. Thus the spirit which stimulated the peoples of Europe and made them progress was the healthy and powerful reaction against pressure from the steppe lands of Asia.
The discovery of the New World changed the relations of Europe and Asia. Europe no longer watched in dread for what might come from Asia. She turned her back on Asia and founded new Europes beyond the oceans.
But now the whole world is occupied and well filled with people, save only the vast steppes of Euro-Asia. Europe is fenced in again as she was 400 years ago, and can expand no farther. The land power, the steppes of the Russian Empire and Mongolia, dormant while the oceans were being overrun, will now reassert itself. Railways are to give the steppes mobility and replace the horse and camel. Here there is room for hundreds of millions, who shall derive countless riches from the wealth of fertile plains, boundless forests, and neighboring mountains.
"The Geographical Pivot of History" thus formulated the Heartland Theory. This is often considered as a, if not the, founding moment of geopolitics as a field of study, although Mackinder did not use the term. Whilst the Heartland Theory initially received little attention outside geography, this theory would later exercise some influence on the foreign policies of world powers.
According to Mackinder, the Earth's land surface was divisible into:
The World-Island, comprising the interlinked continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This was the largest, most populous, and richest of all possible land combinations.
The offshore islands, including the British Isles and the islands of Japan.
The outlying islands, including the continents of North America, South America, and Australia.
The Heartland lay at the centre of the world island, stretching from the Volga to the Yangtze and from the Himalayas to the Arctic. Mackinder's Heartland was the area then ruled by the Russian Empire and after that by the Soviet Union. Later, in 1919, Mackinder summarised his theory as:
"Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland;
who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island;
who rules the World-Island commands the world."
Any power which controlled the World-Island would control well over 50% of the world's resources. The Heartland's size and central position made it the key to controlling the World-Island.
39 pages, Kindle Edition
First published January 1, 1904
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647 people want to read
About the author
Halford John Mackinder
56 books55 followersSir Halford John Mackinder (1861 – 1947) was an English geographer, academic, politician, the first Principal of University Extension College, Reading (which became the University of Reading) and Director of the London School of Economics. In January 1910 he was elected to Parliament as Liberal Unionist Party member for the Glasgow Camlachie constituency and was defeated in 1922.
Mackinder's work paved the way for the establishment of geography as a distinct discipline in the United Kingdom. His role in fostering the teaching of geography is probably greater than that of any other single English geographer. He became a full professor in Geography in the University of London (London School of Economics) in 1923.
Mackinder's work paved the way for the establishment of geography as a distinct discipline in the United Kingdom. His role in fostering the teaching of geography is probably greater than that of any other single English geographer. He became a full professor in Geography in the University of London (London School of Economics) in 1923.
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Displaying 1 - 22 of 22 reviews
September 22, 2019
This is a re-publication of an article that first appeared in The Geographical Journal in 1904. The age of the piece doesn't necessarily invalidate it because it takes a grand sweep of geography and uses it to cross reference a grand sweep of history. It examines a number of vast currents of history in the context of the physical geography in which they occur and draws a number of conclusions that are of interest to us today.
The main thesis is that it is the core of the Eurasian land mass - what today we would see as Russia, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and western China - that has driven the main currents in world history. In the model presented, it is the movements from the core - The Pivot Area - to the periphery (Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Sub-Continent, and south east Asia) that have determined both who we are today and how we live today. There is a certain degree of resonance in this argument.
We may object to the argument by asking about North and South America, and Africa. There is a case to say that this Outer Crescent of influence has been fairly dominant in recent decades. And this is where the argument gets interesting. Two factors militate towards the re-assertion of the argument.
The first is the view that the Americas are naturally isolationist. If the global US turns out to be an historical aberration, and that the flow of history reverts to the normal state of affairs, then the withdrawal of the US from global affairs would be a natural future to expect. In many ways, this may be forced upon US aspirations in the 2020s by a latent fiscal crisis. This is certainly a future to look out for.
The second factor is the current rise of China. The strategic gaze of China is westwards - the re-integration of the Eurasian land mass under the leadership of China. It is interesting to note that Mackinder sees the railways as a vehicle of integration, and a core aspect of current policy in China is laying down high speed rail links as a force of integration. This is all wrapped into the current 'Belt and Road Initiative', which is certainly a feature to be aware of in future geo-politics.
I am quite sympathetic to this argument. A stronger case is made for it in Peter Frankopan's pair of books on the Silk Roads. Historically, the Silk Roads were a major integrative force in world history. Trade in goods facilitated the transmission of culture and learning. It has the capacity to do the same again. As we head towards a post-American world order, one wonders if the emergent world order will be one based upon commerce?
I enjoyed reading the article. It was written in the language of 1904, so the reader has to take that into account. That doesn't detract from the main theme. Whilst there are a few exceptions to the rules established, I think that the main rule is a good one. If you are looking to gain an understanding of the current direction of geo-politics, this is a good starting point.
The main thesis is that it is the core of the Eurasian land mass - what today we would see as Russia, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and western China - that has driven the main currents in world history. In the model presented, it is the movements from the core - The Pivot Area - to the periphery (Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Sub-Continent, and south east Asia) that have determined both who we are today and how we live today. There is a certain degree of resonance in this argument.
We may object to the argument by asking about North and South America, and Africa. There is a case to say that this Outer Crescent of influence has been fairly dominant in recent decades. And this is where the argument gets interesting. Two factors militate towards the re-assertion of the argument.
The first is the view that the Americas are naturally isolationist. If the global US turns out to be an historical aberration, and that the flow of history reverts to the normal state of affairs, then the withdrawal of the US from global affairs would be a natural future to expect. In many ways, this may be forced upon US aspirations in the 2020s by a latent fiscal crisis. This is certainly a future to look out for.
The second factor is the current rise of China. The strategic gaze of China is westwards - the re-integration of the Eurasian land mass under the leadership of China. It is interesting to note that Mackinder sees the railways as a vehicle of integration, and a core aspect of current policy in China is laying down high speed rail links as a force of integration. This is all wrapped into the current 'Belt and Road Initiative', which is certainly a feature to be aware of in future geo-politics.
I am quite sympathetic to this argument. A stronger case is made for it in Peter Frankopan's pair of books on the Silk Roads. Historically, the Silk Roads were a major integrative force in world history. Trade in goods facilitated the transmission of culture and learning. It has the capacity to do the same again. As we head towards a post-American world order, one wonders if the emergent world order will be one based upon commerce?
I enjoyed reading the article. It was written in the language of 1904, so the reader has to take that into account. That doesn't detract from the main theme. Whilst there are a few exceptions to the rules established, I think that the main rule is a good one. If you are looking to gain an understanding of the current direction of geo-politics, this is a good starting point.
May 5, 2021
I found the historical parts of the essay most interesting, e.g. the dynamic where the Central Asian heartland’s mobile warriors go out to invade somewhere, which then triggers a response that unifies said country/nation/territory being attacked. Other examples from other attackers show this same dynamic of an attack unifying a country. Some prime examples include China building the great wall, divided Europe becoming a unified Christendom due to attacks on Christians in Jerusalem thereby setting off the Crusades, France becoming unified under threat of conquest by England in the 100 Years’ War, the United States becoming united and states only due to the war vs. Great Britain, etc.
Parallels can even be drawn between the mobile horsemen of old never having their heartland conquered due to their mobility, and the continual failures to invade Russia (Napoleon and Hitler).
I also enjoyed the analytic division between the Pivot (heartland), agricultural areas, and sea invaders as a threefold division of countries, which look like a central oval and two surrounding crescents as a geopolitical division. E.g. we have central nomads, agricultural centers like Egypt and Mesopotamia, and invaders from the sea (as in the ones who invaded in the ~1800 BC Near East Collapse). The same division could be made 3000 years later, where we have the Mongols, central and western European countries as agricultural hubs, and the vikings as sea invaders.
Parallels can even be drawn between the mobile horsemen of old never having their heartland conquered due to their mobility, and the continual failures to invade Russia (Napoleon and Hitler).
I also enjoyed the analytic division between the Pivot (heartland), agricultural areas, and sea invaders as a threefold division of countries, which look like a central oval and two surrounding crescents as a geopolitical division. E.g. we have central nomads, agricultural centers like Egypt and Mesopotamia, and invaders from the sea (as in the ones who invaded in the ~1800 BC Near East Collapse). The same division could be made 3000 years later, where we have the Mongols, central and western European countries as agricultural hubs, and the vikings as sea invaders.
May 20, 2025
Very racist way to speak about the people who this guy's beleive are not western white people but definitely the text is still in use by the main hegemonic powers in trying to stop Russian progress by making conflicts in his periferia.
June 20, 2023
Halford Mackinder's seminal work, "The Geographical Pivot of History," presents a groundbreaking geopolitical analysis of global power dynamics and the role of geography in shaping historical events. Mackinder's theory revolves around the notion of a geopolitical "pivot," a strategic region that, if controlled, could determine global supremacy. This review aims to provide an academic evaluation of Mackinder's arguments, discussing the book's strengths, weaknesses, and its significance within the fields of geopolitics, international relations, and historical geography.
"The Geographical Pivot of History" by Halford Mackinder explores the profound influence of geography on the course of history. Mackinder contends that control over the Eurasian "Heartland," with its vast resources and strategic position, is crucial for world domination. He analyzes the historical struggles for dominance over this region, highlighting the geopolitical significance of central Asia and its surrounding territories. Mackinder's theory not only offers insights into past conflicts but also provides a framework for understanding contemporary global power dynamics.
Mackinder's work stands out for its interdisciplinary approach, combining historical analysis, geopolitical theory, and geographical understanding. He draws upon a wide range of sources, including historical records, geographic data, and political observations, to construct his theory of the "pivot." Mackinder's analysis prompts critical reflections on the interplay between geography, power, and historical development, offering a unique perspective that remains relevant to contemporary geopolitical discussions.
One of the notable strengths of "The Geographical Pivot of History" lies in Mackinder's ability to connect geographical factors with broader historical processes. His theory of the pivot presents a compelling framework for understanding the struggles for global power throughout history. By emphasizing the significance of geographical resources, strategic positioning, and transportation routes, Mackinder provides valuable insights into the motivations and actions of historical actors.
Furthermore, Mackinder's analysis has proven prescient in many instances. His identification of the Eurasian Heartland as a region of geopolitical significance anticipated the subsequent rivalries and conflicts that unfolded during the 20th century. The book's ability to predict and explain geopolitical developments, such as the rise of the Soviet Union and the challenges faced by maritime powers, demonstrates its enduring relevance.
While "The Geographical Pivot of History" offers a groundbreaking analysis, it is not without its limitations. Critics argue that Mackinder's theory may oversimplify complex historical events, reducing them to geographical determinism. A more nuanced consideration of the role of other factors, such as ideology, culture, and technology, would enhance the book's analytical breadth and provide a more comprehensive understanding of historical dynamics.
Additionally, Mackinder's work has faced criticism for its Eurocentric perspective, focusing primarily on the Eurasian Heartland and neglecting the complexities of other regions in global power relations. A more inclusive analysis that accounts for the multiple geopolitical "pivots" around the world would provide a more balanced and comprehensive assessment of global power dynamics.
"The Geographical Pivot of History" holds significant importance within the fields of geopolitics, international relations, and historical geography as a foundational work that revolutionized our understanding of global power dynamics. Mackinder's theory of the pivot has had a lasting impact on strategic thinking, informing the strategies of nations and shaping geopolitical debates. The book's contribution lies in its ability to illuminate the profound interplay between geography and history, fostering critical reflections on the enduring relevance of geographical factors in shaping political and historical developments.
GPT
"The Geographical Pivot of History" by Halford Mackinder explores the profound influence of geography on the course of history. Mackinder contends that control over the Eurasian "Heartland," with its vast resources and strategic position, is crucial for world domination. He analyzes the historical struggles for dominance over this region, highlighting the geopolitical significance of central Asia and its surrounding territories. Mackinder's theory not only offers insights into past conflicts but also provides a framework for understanding contemporary global power dynamics.
Mackinder's work stands out for its interdisciplinary approach, combining historical analysis, geopolitical theory, and geographical understanding. He draws upon a wide range of sources, including historical records, geographic data, and political observations, to construct his theory of the "pivot." Mackinder's analysis prompts critical reflections on the interplay between geography, power, and historical development, offering a unique perspective that remains relevant to contemporary geopolitical discussions.
One of the notable strengths of "The Geographical Pivot of History" lies in Mackinder's ability to connect geographical factors with broader historical processes. His theory of the pivot presents a compelling framework for understanding the struggles for global power throughout history. By emphasizing the significance of geographical resources, strategic positioning, and transportation routes, Mackinder provides valuable insights into the motivations and actions of historical actors.
Furthermore, Mackinder's analysis has proven prescient in many instances. His identification of the Eurasian Heartland as a region of geopolitical significance anticipated the subsequent rivalries and conflicts that unfolded during the 20th century. The book's ability to predict and explain geopolitical developments, such as the rise of the Soviet Union and the challenges faced by maritime powers, demonstrates its enduring relevance.
While "The Geographical Pivot of History" offers a groundbreaking analysis, it is not without its limitations. Critics argue that Mackinder's theory may oversimplify complex historical events, reducing them to geographical determinism. A more nuanced consideration of the role of other factors, such as ideology, culture, and technology, would enhance the book's analytical breadth and provide a more comprehensive understanding of historical dynamics.
Additionally, Mackinder's work has faced criticism for its Eurocentric perspective, focusing primarily on the Eurasian Heartland and neglecting the complexities of other regions in global power relations. A more inclusive analysis that accounts for the multiple geopolitical "pivots" around the world would provide a more balanced and comprehensive assessment of global power dynamics.
"The Geographical Pivot of History" holds significant importance within the fields of geopolitics, international relations, and historical geography as a foundational work that revolutionized our understanding of global power dynamics. Mackinder's theory of the pivot has had a lasting impact on strategic thinking, informing the strategies of nations and shaping geopolitical debates. The book's contribution lies in its ability to illuminate the profound interplay between geography and history, fostering critical reflections on the enduring relevance of geographical factors in shaping political and historical developments.
GPT
January 3, 2018
Halford J. Mackinder was a turn of the 20th century geographer who analyzed geopolitical world affairs as an ongoing confrontation between what he called the Pivot Area, and the Outer Crescent. The "Pivot Area" roughly corresponds to what is now Russia plus Central Asia; the "Outer Crescent" consists of those nations which are or were (in his time) maritime powers, i.e. the USA, Canada, South America the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. In general, if I understand him correctly, the Outer Crescent powers do not want the Pivot Area powers to dominate the rest of Europe and Asia. Mackinder's ideas have been the starting point for a great deal of subsequent geopolitical analysis. You can use them as a template for looking at America's relations with Russia and China today.
March 20, 2022
Refreshing view on the history of world in which major shifts are determined by geography.
Europe formed and united "thanks" to the invasions from the nomadic land powers of the central asia, which were inevitable because of the natural conditions. Pivotal area (heartland) as a basis for conquering the world island (euroasia).
Fascinating, inspirating, revolutionary in terms of looking at world affairs and power politics.
Europe formed and united "thanks" to the invasions from the nomadic land powers of the central asia, which were inevitable because of the natural conditions. Pivotal area (heartland) as a basis for conquering the world island (euroasia).
Fascinating, inspirating, revolutionary in terms of looking at world affairs and power politics.
August 6, 2019
Possibly the most impactful essay on geopolitics ever written even if its conclusions are not perfectly clairvoyant. However, accurately concluding that the geopolitical struggles of the near future would revolve around the heartland (Soviet Union), and its great naval opponent (United States) was quite prophetic (if not particularly original)
June 13, 2020
A reborn Isaiah in the early twentieth century.
October 4, 2020
Extremely relevant article in regards to modern geopolitics despite it being written more than a hundred years ago
April 24, 2022
A major book to take a first step into geopolitics.
November 15, 2022
Great book, the e-book version can be found at:
https://www.kobo.com/us/en/ebook/the-...
https://www.kobo.com/us/en/ebook/the-...
January 27, 2024
Very good and kind of romantic in a way. The author is a little hard to follow at times as he writes very eloquently.
September 1, 2023
Un classico degli studi di geopolitica.
Leggere l'articolo di Mackinder è necessario per poter capire gli sviluppi successivi che ebbe la disciplina.
Fu il primo ad introdurre il concetto di "Heartland", inteso come spazio continentale interno, contrapposto alle potenze marittime.
Nonostante non condivida questa visione e anzi la ritenga fin troppo drastica, devo ammettere che comunque quest'opera mi ha dato la possibilità di riflettere su temi che non avevo ancora affrontato.
Per concludere, ho trovato molto interessante l'analisi storica delle invasioni provenienti dalle steppe, così come il continuo scontro che li ha opposti alle civiltà agricole circostanti (Europa, Cina, India).
Leggere l'articolo di Mackinder è necessario per poter capire gli sviluppi successivi che ebbe la disciplina.
Fu il primo ad introdurre il concetto di "Heartland", inteso come spazio continentale interno, contrapposto alle potenze marittime.
Nonostante non condivida questa visione e anzi la ritenga fin troppo drastica, devo ammettere che comunque quest'opera mi ha dato la possibilità di riflettere su temi che non avevo ancora affrontato.
Per concludere, ho trovato molto interessante l'analisi storica delle invasioni provenienti dalle steppe, così come il continuo scontro che li ha opposti alle civiltà agricole circostanti (Europa, Cina, India).
February 10, 2019
I wrote this review while being given a recreation break by my Russian overlords. Ever since they enslaved the entire human race, it's been hard to find time to read. It's too bad air travel is never going to pan out, so I could get away from here!
April 30, 2022
While perhaps dated and overly simplistic, this essay published in the early 20th century remains an illuminating view of the dynamics of world geopolitics and a useful model to inform US grand strategy against Eurasian powers
September 6, 2022
Found this e-book on Barnes & Noble instead:
https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-...
(The Amazon link went to a blank page with a dog picture.)
https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-...
(The Amazon link went to a blank page with a dog picture.)
August 6, 2019
Interesting. I'm new to geopolitics, and this has this was an interesting introduction.
June 1, 2021
A short classic on the role of the open steppes of Asia as a source of free movement, the "pivot" of historical activity, and it's analog to the open ocean.
December 28, 2024
An early treatise on geopolitics that is maybe most useful for historiographical purposes, and as an insight to the underpinnings of Eurasian political history.
March 11, 2025
24 pages of pure prophetic history. Ahead of his time.
October 18, 2025
I have seen The Geographical Pivot of History by Halford John Mackinder referenced very frequently in modern political science books.
Initially, it was a lecture presented by the author at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1904. At that time, geopolitics as such didn’t exist, and with this report, Mackinder is now considered one of the founders of the science.
The point of the article is that Mackinder explained the historical moments of the conquests of the Huns, Magyars, and Mongols in Europe through the prism of their geographical routes from the heart of Asia. He thus developed the theory that the central parts of Asia without access to the seas (Heartland) are a constant threat and enemy for the countries of Europe, which are close to the ocean and in this sense act as a peninsula at the tip of the vast Eurasia. Maritime East Asia has an identical relationship to the central parts of the continent as Europe.
It’s clear that the author’s theory was in its infancy in this report, and Mackinder later developed it in subsequent works. The confrontation between Western Europe and the USSR in the 20th century also played a huge role in popularising this idea.
I acknowledge the historical significance of this book; its echo as a source we feel in many modern works. On the other hand, it’s an old-school work and doesn’t evoke any particular awe in the contemporary world.
Anyway, I’m glad I read this lecture. Now, I know first-hand what it means when political scientists refer to Mackinder’s Heartland.
Initially, it was a lecture presented by the author at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1904. At that time, geopolitics as such didn’t exist, and with this report, Mackinder is now considered one of the founders of the science.
The point of the article is that Mackinder explained the historical moments of the conquests of the Huns, Magyars, and Mongols in Europe through the prism of their geographical routes from the heart of Asia. He thus developed the theory that the central parts of Asia without access to the seas (Heartland) are a constant threat and enemy for the countries of Europe, which are close to the ocean and in this sense act as a peninsula at the tip of the vast Eurasia. Maritime East Asia has an identical relationship to the central parts of the continent as Europe.
It’s clear that the author’s theory was in its infancy in this report, and Mackinder later developed it in subsequent works. The confrontation between Western Europe and the USSR in the 20th century also played a huge role in popularising this idea.
I acknowledge the historical significance of this book; its echo as a source we feel in many modern works. On the other hand, it’s an old-school work and doesn’t evoke any particular awe in the contemporary world.
Anyway, I’m glad I read this lecture. Now, I know first-hand what it means when political scientists refer to Mackinder’s Heartland.
September 6, 2019
The Rome/Greece analogy he employs is a severe mistake and makes me question MacKinder's knowledge. Leaving that aside, i think some of his conclusions are interdasting
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