Well suited for a first exposure to permaculture and highly accessible.
The main point of this book is introducing the “third way” between the western model of “chemical fertilisers and pesticides”, “machinery and the transport infrastructure” against the medieval framework, where the energy is “entirely in the form of the farmers’ own labour and that of their beasts”.
This approach puts all the emphasis on the design stage, meaning energy (either human or artificial) is reduced and the process of growing and maintenance is dealt with nature itself and supported by the symbiotic components of the land. Patrick’s first example here is the natural forest which brings about the first principle, stacking. Layers come naturally, with a high canopy of trees, lower level shrubs, herbs and ground layer vegetation. This is very different to monoculture farming which is only going to ever be half a metre high. With stacking, no inputs are needed but “sun, rain, and the rock from which it makes its own soil” compared with the “ploughing, cultivating, seeding, manuring, weeding and pest-control” dependencies by modern-day farming.
Stacking is productive because of all the useful connections that can be exploited from nature. “fungi and bacteria, which convert dead organic material into a form which can be absorbed by roots …green plants provide the fungi and bacteria with their energy needs. Insects feed off flowers and in return pollinate …aromatic herbs give off chemicals which are good for the health of their neighbours”. Later on in the book (p33) it also demonstrates how sunshine is used at different times of the year (because of the different layers and growths) and how the stacking is “reproduced below ground” to help also enrich the soil.
The traditional method, Whitefield argues, stems from the Green Revolution and its short-term principles of high yields, regardless of the inputs required. What we know today is that this approach is unsustainable (depletion in fossil fuels, desertification, pollution and climate change etc).
The benefits of this permaculture approach could mean less land required, but the author is keen to point out it should be done in parallel with matching “our consumption to need, not greed” and with policy changes in population growth.
The second chapter looks at chickens as an example to tease out other perma principles:
Relative placement – putting food nearer the consumers (minimal effort)
Perennial plants – as a preference over annuals so “little or no maintenance”; also they’re typically available earlier (Spring), especially if native. The nearest to this is self-seeding annuals (helpful towards no-dig)
Every plant, animal or structure should have many functions – the example here being gorse: seeds for feed, nitrogen fixing, fuel for winter, pollen for bees.
Diversity – probably the main element of perma – to reduce the dependencies on the ~7 staples the global population relies on today (and the risks on diseases)
Biological resource – a “plan or animal that is used to fill a need that might otherwise be filled by fossil fuels”
Third chapter focuses on the city. Starts off with the wasted opportunity on the great heat that urban environments emit which could be used in growing fruit and vegetables. Being close to vegetables also means you can pluck / clip / seed-sprout plants as opposed to pulling up the whole object (required today because we consume in supermarkets hundreds of miles away from the source). This will engender growth on the organism (like pruning or pollarding does) and reduces waste (taking what you need for now).
Buildings, like agriculture, have been designed for quick-wins. Aluminium (high energy costs in production), mineral fibre insulation (carcinogenic), paints (titanium dioxide). Solutions in nature should always be appraised: wool or cork for insulation (preserved with borax), reedbeds for sewage etc.
Fourth chapter looks at the garden and how zoning puts the most needy plants in closer proximity to the gardener. Whitefield also demonstrates how viewing plants with multiple outputs you’re also adding to the yield (example of marigolds that control eelworms who target tomatoes, not just what the flower does for the soil). Sectors is also a concept introduced which define areas within the garden based on “temperature, moisture, wind and sunlight” that should be factored in with the design.
Lucerne (Alfafa) can be grown as natural “green” manure crop (instead of fossil-fuel dependent fertilisers).
Mulching is good for “killing weeds, conserve moisture …protect the soil from rain …add fertility to the soil”, “save as much as 40% of water” and “kills off the existing plant cover by excluding light”.
Weeds are helpful for increasing diversity (as they are and for introducing subsequent biomass). Example being dock and dandelion that bring up new minerals from the subsoil.
Chapter five compares small scale to modern farming (which yields 3.5 times more per square metre), yet we still continue this path: 1% of the population working on the land …thanks to the subsidy of grossly under-priced fossil fuels”. This is demonstrated when “a litre of spring water …costs as much as a litre of petrol” (now that water has become so sparse).
Trees are important in this space, for they act as a sponge rather than the soil drying out and flowing away with strong winds on farmland between harvests when exposed (particularly in US).
Permaculture can fix farmland in many ways:
Acidic bogs – traditionally fixed with chemical fertilisers and plastic drainage – instead can use rock phosphate and lime, earthworms, clover to fix the nitrogen. Cheaper inputs than the traditional methods.
Ploughing – disrupts the top 5cm (burying the micro-organisms or exposing to ultra violet). Traditionally, this does increase yield per hectare, but lower yield per unit of energy (i.e. costs a lot more with the tractor, plough, fuel, replenishment of the disturbed soil with fertilisers etc)
Masanobu Fukuoka is a proponent of natural solutions to these problems. Clover growing under grains, weeds “regarded as part of the ecosystem”, Ducks to deter slugs, ground always covered with mulch.
Ponds are very useful for biomass, particularly the edges (“the most productive ecosystems on Earth”), so Whitefield advocates wavy shorelines. Plus, reeds, bulrushes, reedmaces and water lilies are all edible.
In the sixth chapter, the author looks at Crystal Waters in Australia as an exemplar for Community benefits of permaculture.
In the final paragraphs (Q&A), he details the limited tenure of traditional food production:
1. 50 million people “have become unable to feed themselves due to desertification”
2. “irrigated land can suffer a gradual build-up of salt in the top soil” (because of evaporation, leaving a high concentration of salt that makes plant growth unfeasible).
Permaculture can look to fix these, by:
1. planting trees in arid landscape (to absorb water and create local rainclouds)
2. selecting native plants that takes away the need for making the soil fit the needs of the plant (with irrigation for e.g. and its subsequent salt concentrations).